Effects of Stereotypical Sex Role Movies on Adolescents and Emerging Adults
- Cristina Polo-Alonso Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, University of KU Leuven (Belgium) and research collaborator at the Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising II (University Complutense of Madrid, Spain)
- Laurens Vangeel Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, University of KU Leuven (Belgium)
- Laura Vandenbosch Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, University of KU Leuven (Belgium).
Abstract
This experiment examines the effect of movies portraying stereotypical sex roles on sexual gender stereotypes and rape myths among adolescents and emerging adults (N = 116). After watching a stereotypical sex role movie or a control movie, participants completed a survey on their acceptance of sexual stereotypes and rape myths. Results showed that male and female adolescents who watched the stereotyped movie reported more acceptance of gender stereotypes and rape myths. No effects were found among emerging adults. Social learning theory and media priming are used in discussing these findings.Downloads
References
Alfieri, T., Ruble, D. N., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Gender stereotypes during adolescence: Developmental changes and the transition to junior high school. Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 1129-1137. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.1129
Alloy Media & Marketing. (2009). 9th Annual College Explorer Survey. Retrieved May 16, 2012, from http://www.marketingcharts.com/television/college-students-spend-12-hoursday-with-me dia-gadgets-11195/
American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Communications. (2001). Sexuality, Contraception, and the Media. Pediatrics, 107(1), 191–194. doi: 10.1542/peds.107.1.191
American Psychological Association (APA). (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report.aspx
Aosved, A. C., & Long, P. J. (2006). Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance. Sex Roles, 55, 481-492. doi: doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4
Arendt, F., & Marquart, F. (2015). Corrupt politicians? Media priming effects on overtly expressed stereotypes toward politicians. Communications, 40(2), 185-197. doi: 10.1515/commun-2015-0003
Arnett, J. (1992). Reckless behavior in adolescence: A developmental perspective. Developmental Review, 12, 339-373. doi: 10.1016/0273-2297(92)90013-R
Arnett, J. J. (1995). Adolescents’ uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(5), 519-533.
Arnett, J. J. (1998). Learning to stand alone: The contemporary American transition to adulthood in cultural and historical context. Human Development, 41, 295-315. doi:10.1159/000022591
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469 -480. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.5.469
Arnett, J. J. (2013). The evidence for generation we and against generation me. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 5-10.
Arnett, J. J. (2013). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Arnett, J. J. (2015). Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens to Through the Twenties (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359-373. doi: 10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology, 51(2), 269-290. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00092
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (2000). The mind in the middle: A practical guide to priming and automaticity research. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 253-285). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354-364.
Brown, J. D., Childers, K. W., & Waszak, C. S. (1990). Television and adolescent sexuality. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 11(1), 62-70. doi: 10.1016/0197-0070(90)90131-K
Brown, J. D., Halpern, C. T., & L’Engle, K. L. (2005). Mass media as a sexual super peer for early maturing girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36(5), 420-427. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.06.003
Brown, E. F., & Hendee, W. R. (1989). Adolescents and their music: Insights into the health of adolescents. JAMA, 262(12), 1659-1663. doi: 10.1001/jama.1989.03430120113032
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 217-230. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713.
Cann, V. (2014). The limits of masculinity: Boys, taste and cultural consumption. In Debating Modern Masculinities: Change, Continuity, Crisis? (pp. 17-34). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Christie, D., & Viner, R. (2005). ABC of adolescence: Adolescent development. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 330(7486), 301-304.
Coyne, S. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Howard, E. (2013). Emerging in a digital world: A decade review of media use, effects, and gratifications in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 125-137. doi: 10.1177/2167696813479782
Cuklanz, L. M. (1998). The masculine ideal: Rape on prime-time television, 1976–1978. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 15(4), 423-448.
Domke, D., Shah, D. V., & Wackman, D. B. (1998). Media priming effects: Accessibility, association, and activation. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 10(1), 51-74.
Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1989). Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15(4), 543-558. doi:10.1177/0146167289154008
Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women’s achievement-related decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11(2), 135-172. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00781.x
Eggermont, S. (2006). The impact of television viewing on adolescents’ sexual socialization. (Doctoral dissertation). Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
Emmers-Sommer, T. M., Pauley, P., Hanzal, A., & Triplett, L. (2006). Love, suspense, sex, and violence: Men’s and women’s film predilections, exposure to sexually violent media, and their relationship to rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 55(5-6), 311-320. doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9085-0
Epstein, D. (1997). Boyz’Own Stories: Masculinities and sexualities in schools. Gender and Education, 9(1), 105-116. doi: 10.1080/09540259721484
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Eyal, K., & Finnerty, K. (2009). The portrayal of sexual intercourse on television: How, who, and with what consequence? Mass Communication and Society, 12(2), 143-169. doi: 10.1080/15205430802136713
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
Furman, W., & Simon, V. A. (1999). Cognitive representations of adolescent romantic relationships. The Development of Romantic Relationships in Adolescence, 75-98.
Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research, 27(3), 291-305. doi: 10.1177/0022343390027003005
Greenberg, B. S., Brown, J. D., & Buerkel-Rothfuss, N. (1992). Media, Sex, and the Adolescent. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Greenberg, B. S., Siemicki, M., Dorfman, S., et al. (1986). Sex content in R-rated films viewed by adolescents. Project CAST Report No. 3. East Lansing, Michigan State University, Department of Telecommunications.
Greenberg, B. S., Linsangan, R., & Soderman, A. (1993). Adolescents’ reactions to television sex. In B. S. Greenberg, J. D. Brown, & N. L. Buerkel-Rothfuss (Eds.), Media, sex, and the adolescent (pp. 196–224). Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Gruber, E., & Grube, J. W. (2000). Adolescent sexuality and the media. The Western Journal of Medicine, 172(3), 210-214.
Gunasekera, H., Chapman, S., & Campbell, S. (2005). Sex and drugs in popular movies: an analysis of the top 200 films. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 98(10), 464-470. doi: 10.1258/jrsm.98.10.464
Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (1988). How rock music videos can change what is seen when boy meets girl: Priming stereotypic appraisal of social interactions. Sex Roles, 19(5-6), 287-316. doi: 10.1007/BF00289839
Hansen, C. H., & Krygowski, W. (1994). Arousal-augmented priming effects: Rock music videos and sex object schemas. Communication Research, 21(1), 24-47. doi: 10.1177/009365094021001003
Hefner, V., & Wilson, B. J. (2013). From love at first sight to soul mate: The influence of romantic ideals in popular films on young people’s beliefs about relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150-175. doi: 10.1080/03637751.2013.776697
Hill, J. P., & Lynch, M. E. (1983). The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In Brooks-Gunn J., Petersen A.C. (eds), Girls at Puberty (pp. 201-228). Boston, MA: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-0354-9_10
Huston, A. C., & Alvarez, M. M. (1990). The socialization context of gender role development in early adolescence. In R. Montemayor, G. R. Adams, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Advances in adolescent development: An annual book series, Vol. 2. From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period? (pp. 156-179). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Jackson, S. (1995). The social context of rape: Sexual scripts and motivation. In P. Searles & R. J. Berger (Eds.), Rape and society, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Jamieson, P., More, E., Lee, S., Busse, P., & Romer, D. (2008). It matters what people watch: Health risk behaviors portrayed in top-grossing movies since 1950. In P. Jamieson & D. Romer (Eds.), The changing portrayal of adolescents in the media since 1950 (pp. 105–131). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Johannesen–Schmidt, M. C., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). Another look at sex differences in preferred mate characteristics: The effects of endorsing the traditional female gender role. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 322-328.
Kahlor, L., & Morrison, D. (2007). Television viewing and rape myth acceptance among college women. Sex Roles, 56(11-12), 729-739. doi: 10.1007/s11199-007-9232-2
Kahlor, L., & Eastin, M. S. (2011). Television’s role in the culture of violence toward women: A study of television viewing and the cultivation of rape myth acceptance in the United States. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 55(2), 215-231. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2011.566085
Kaiser Family Foundation. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18- year olds. Menlo Park, CA: Author.
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communication: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 19-32). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Kim, J. L., Lynn Sorsoli, C., Collins, K., Zylbergold, B. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime network television. Journal of Sex Research, 44(2), 145-157. doi: 10.1080/00224490701263660
Kirsch, A. C., & Murnen, S. K. (2015). “Hot” girls and “cool dudes”: Examining the prevalence
of the heterosexual script in American children’s television media. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4(1), 18- 30. doi: 10.1037/ppm0000017.
Koss, M. P., Goodman, L. A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., Keita, G. P., & Russo, N. G. (1994). United all women: The fear of rape. In No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community (pp. 157–176). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Kunkel, D., Farrar, K. M., Eyal, K., Biely, E., & Donnerstein, E. (2007). Sexual socialization messages on entertainment television: Comparing content trends 1997–2002. Media Psychology, 9, 599–622. doi:10.1080/15213260701283210
Lagaert, S., Van Houtte, M., & Roose, H. (2017). Engendering Culture: The Relationship of Gender Identity and Pressure for Gender Conformity with Adolescents’ Interests in the Arts and Literature. Sex Roles 77(7-8), 482–495. doi: 10.1007/s11199-017-0738-y
Larsen, E. (1990). Censoring sex information: The story of Sassy. Utne Reader, 40, 96-97.
Lonsdale, A. J., & North, A. C. (2011). Why do we listen to music? A uses and gratifications analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 102(1), 108-134. doi: 10.1348/000712610X506831
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133–164.
Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. (1985). The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs in rape myths: Individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 19(3), 299-320. doi: 10.1016/0092-6566(85)90021-2
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, 9(11), 159-187.
Martin, C. L. (1993). New Directions for Investigating Children′ s Gender Knowledge. Developmental Review, 13(2), 184-204. doi: 10.1006/drev.1993.1008
Martino, W. (1999). ‘Cool boys’, ‘party animals’, ‘squids’ and ‘poofters’: Interrogating the dynamics and politics of adolescent masculinities in school. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 20, 239 –263. doi:10.1080/01425699995434.
Milburn, M. A., Mather, R., & Conrad, S. D. (2000). The effects of viewing R-rated movie scenes that objectify women on perceptions of date rape. Sex Roles, 43(9), 645-664. doi: 10.1023/A:1007152507914
Parsons, T. (1942). Age and sex in the social structure of the United States. American Sociological Review, 7(5), 604-616.
Pechmann, C. (2001). A comparison of health communication models: Risk learning versus stereotype priming. Media Psychology, 3(2), 189-210. doi: 10.1207/S1532785XMEP0302_04
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2011). The use of sexually explicit internet material and its antecedents: A longitudinal comparison of adolescents and adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(5), 1015-1025.
Power, J. G., Murphy, S. T., & Coover, G. (1996). Priming Prejudice How Stereotypes and Counter-Stereotypes Influence Attribution of Responsibility and Credibility among Ingroups and Outgroups. Human Communication Research, 23(1), 36-58. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1996.tb00386.x
Rindfuss, R. R. (1991). The young adult years: Diversity, structural change, and fertility. Demography, 28(4), 493-512. doi: 10.2307/2061419
Rivadeneyra, R., & Lebo, M. J. (2008). The association between television-viewing behaviors and adolescent dating role attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 291 –305. doi:10.1016/ j.adolescence.2007.06.001
Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Roskos-Ewoldsen, B., & Carpentier, F. R. D. (2002). Media priming: A synthesis. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 97–120). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Klinger, M. R., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, B. (2007). Media priming: A meta-analysis. Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis, 53-80.
Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, B. (2009). Current research in media priming. The SAGE Handbook of Media Processes and Effects, 177-192.
Rozee, P. D., & Koss, M. P. (2001). Rape: A century of resistance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25(4), 295-311. doi: 10.1111/1471-6402.00030
Rubin, A. (2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective of media effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 525-548). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rudy, R. M., Popova, L., & Linz, D. G. (2010). The context of current content analysis of gender roles: An introduction to a special issue. Sex Roles, 62(11-12), 705–720. doi: 10.1007/s11199-010-9807-1
Rudy, R. M., Popova, L., & Linz, D. G. (2011). Contributions to the content analysis of gender roles: An introduction to a special issue. Sex Roles, 64(3-4), 151-159.
Schooler, D., Sorsoli, C. L., Kim, J., & Tolman, D. (2009). Beyond exposure: A person-oriented approach to adolescent media diets. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(3). doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00604.x
Spiro, M.E. (1994). Culture and Human Nature. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press. Steele, J. R., & Brown, J. D. (1995). Adolescent room culture: Studying media in the context of everyday life. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(5), 551–576. doi:10.1007/BF01537056
Stith, S. M., Smith, D. B., Pen, C. E., Ward, D. B., & Tritt, D. (2004). Intimate partner physical abuse perpetration and victimization risk factors: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 65-98. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2003.09.001
Strasburger, V. C., & Wilson, B. J. (2002). Youth and media: Opportunities for development or lurking dangers? Children, Adolescents, and the Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Suarez, E., & Gadalla, T. M. (2010). Stop blaming the victim: A meta-analysis on rape myths. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(11), 2010 – 2035. doi: 10.1177/0886260509354503
Sutton, M. J., Brown, J. D., Wilson, K. M., & Klein, J. D. (2002). Shaking the tree of knowledge for forbidden fruit: Where adolescents learn about sexuality and contraception. In J. D. Brown, J. R. Steele, & K. Walsh-Childers (Eds.), Sexual teen, sexual media (pp. 25–55). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Swanson, D. L. (1979). The uses and gratifications approach to mass communications research. Communication Research, 6, 3-112.
Ter Bogt, T. F., Engels, R. C., Bogers, S., & Kloosterman, M. (2010). “Shake it baby, shake it”: Media preferences, sexual attitudes and gender stereotypes among adolescents. Sex Roles, 63(11-12), 844-859. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9815-1
Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Walther, J. B. (2016). Media effects: Theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 315-338. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033608
Vervloessem, D., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2011, March). Sexual acts and sexual suggestions on music channels: A content analysis. Master seminar on design and implementation of code-books for qualitative and quantitative content analysis, Brussels.
Villani, S. (2001). Impact of media on children and adolescents: a 10-year review of the research. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, 40(4), 392–401. doi: 10.1097/00004583-200104000-00007
Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(1), 1–15.
Ward, L. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: A review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23(3), 347-388.
Ward, L. M., Hansbrough, E., & Walker, E. (2005). Contributions of music video exposure to black adolescents’ gender and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(2), 143-166. doi: 10.1177/0743558404271135
Ward, L. M., & Friedman, K. (2006). Using TV as a guide: Associations between television viewing and adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(1), 133-156. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00125.x
Ward, L. M., Epstein, M., Caruthers, A., & Merriwether, A. (2011). Men’s media use, sexual cognitions, and sexual risk behavior: testing a mediational model. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 592- 602. doi: 10.1037/a0022669
Ward, L. M. (2016). Media and sexualization: State of empirical research, 1995–2015. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(4-5), 560-577. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2016.1142496
Waterman, A. S. (1999). Identity, the identity statuses, and identity status development: A contemporary statement. Developmental Review, 19, 591-621. doi: 10.1006/drev.1999.0493
Williams, J. E., & Bennett, S. M. (1975). The definition of sex stereotypes via the adjective check list. Sex Roles, 1(4), 327-337. doi: 10.1007/BF00287224
Wright, P. J. (2011). Mass media effects on youth sexual behavior. Communication Yearbook, 35, 343–385. doi: 10.1080/23808985.2011.11679121
Article download
License
In order to support the global exchange of knowledge, the journal Comunicación y Género is allowing unrestricted access to its content as from its publication in this electronic edition, and as such it is an open-access journal. The originals published in this journal are the property of the Complutense University of Madrid and any reproduction thereof in full or in part must cite the source. All content is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 use and distribution licence (CC BY 4.0). This circumstance must be expressly stated in these terms where necessary. You can view the summary and the complete legal text of the licence.