Power, Soft or Deep? An Attempt at Constructive Criticism
- Peter Baumann Swarthmore College http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0991-6288
- Gisela Cramer National University of Colombia (Bogotá) http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7280-971X
Abstract
This paper discusses and criticizes Joseph Nye’s account of soft power. First, we set the stage and make some general remarks about the notion of social power. In the main part of this paper we offer a detailed critical discussion of Nye’s conception of soft power. We conclude that it is too unclear and confused to be of much analytical use. However, despite this failure, Nye is aiming at explaining an important but also neglected form of social power: the power to influence the will and not just the behavior of other agents. In the last part of this paper we briefly discuss Steven Lukes’ alternative view of a “third dimension” of power and end with a sketch of a more promising way to account for this neglected form of power.
Downloads
Author Biographies
References
Abell, P. (1977), The many faces of power and liberty: revealed preference, autonomy, and teleological explanation. Sociology, 11, 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/003803857701100101
Abell, P. (1982). Decisions, power and reason: a preliminary formulation. Acta Sociológica, 25, 133-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/000169938202500203
Acton, J. E. E. D. (1907). Historical essays and studies. London, United Kingdom: Macmillan.
Arendt, H. (1970). On violence. New York, United States of America: Harcourt.
Baumann, P. (1993). Macht und Motivation: zu einer verdeckten Form sozialer Macht. Opladen, Alemania: Leske und Budrich.
Baumann, P. & Cramer, G. (2015). Sul soft power: alcune osservazioni. Ácoma 8 (9-20).
Bachrach, P., & Baratz, M. S. (1962). Two faces of power. The American Political Science Review, 56, 947-952. https://doi.org/10.2307/1952796
Bachrach, P., & Baratz, M. S. (1963). Decisions and nondecisions: an analytical framework. The American Political Science Review, 57, 632-642. https://doi.org/10.2307/1952568
Bem, D. J. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, United States of America: Wadsworth.
Benton, T. (1981). “Objective” interests and the sociology of power. Sociology, 15, 161-184. https://doi.org/10.1177/003803858101500202
Benton, T. (1982). Realism, power, and objective interests. In K. Graham, Contemporary political philosophy: radical studies (pp. 7-34). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University.
Bially Mattern, J. (2005). Why ‘soft power’ isn’t so soft: representational rorce and the sociolinguistic construction of attraction in world politics. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 33, 583-612. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298050330031601
Bially Mattern, J. (2008). The concept of power and the (un)Discipline of International Relations. In C. Reus-Smit, & D. Snidal, The Oxford handbook of International Relations (pp. 691-698). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University.
Bilgin, P., & Elis, B. (2008). Hard power, soft power: toward a more realistic power analysis. Insight Turkey, 10, 5-20.
Bilgrami, A. (1976). Lukes on power and behaviorism. Inquiry, 19, 267-274. https://doi.org/10.1080/00201747608601812
Boulding, K. E. (1989). Three faces of power. Newbury Park, United States of America: Sage.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Sur le pouvoir symbolique [On symbolic power]. Annales. Économies, Sociétes, Civilisations, 32(3), 405-411.
Bradshaw, A. (1976). A critique of Steven Lukes’ ‘Power: A Radical View’. Sociology, 10, 121-127. https://doi.org/10.1177/003803857601000109
Burckhardt, J. (1956). Weltgeschichtliche Betrachtungen [Observations on world history]. In J. Burckhardt, Gesammelte Werke (Vol. 4). Basel, Switzerland: Schwabe. (Original work published 1905).
Clegg, S. R. (1989). Frameworks of power. London, United Kingdom: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446279267
Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioral Science, 2, 201-215. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830020303
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1972). L’Anti-Œdipe [Anti-Oedipus]. Paris, France: Minuit.
Dowding, K. (2006). Three-dimensional power: a discussion of Steven Lukes’ Power: a Radical View. Political Studies Review, 4, 136-145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.000100.x
Doyle, J. (1998). Power and contentment. Politics, 18, 49-56. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.00060
Elster, J. (1982). Sour grapes - utilitarianism and the genesis of wants. In A. Sen, & B. Williams, Utilitarianism and beyond (pp. 219-238). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511611964.013
Etzioni, A. (1968). The active society. A theory of societal and political processes. New York, United States of America: Free. https://doi.org/10.1177/000169936801100401
Ferguson, N. (2003). Power. Foreign Policy, 134(January-February), 18-22, 24. https://doi.org/10.2307/3183518
Ferguson, N. (2004). Colossus. The rise and fall of the American empire. London, United Kingdom: Penguin.
Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (A. Sheridan, Trad.). New York, United States of America: Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1983). Afterword: the subject and power. In H. L. Dreyfus, & P. Rabinow, Michel Foucault. Beyond structuralism and hermeneutics, (pp. 208-227). Chicago, United States of America: Chicago University.
Foucault, M. (1988). History of sexuality: vol. 1, An introduction (R. Hurley, Trad.). New York, United States of America: Vintage.
Frankfurt, H. G. (1971). Freedom of the will and the concept of a person. The Journal of Philosophy, 68, 5-20. https://doi.org/10.2307/2024717
French, J. R. P. Jr./ Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright, Studies in social power (pp. 50-67). Ann Arbor, United States of America: Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.
Gallarotti, G. M. (2011). Soft power: what it is, why it’s important, and the conditions for its effective use. Journal of Political Power, 4, 25-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/2158379X.2011.557886.
Galtung, J. (1971). A structural theory of imperialism. Journal of Peace Research, 8(2), 81-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234337100800201
Gaventa, J. (1980). Power and powerlessness. Quiescence and rebellion in an Appalachian valley. Urbana, United States of America: University of Illinois.
Gelb, L. H. (2009). Power rules. How common sense can rescue American foreign Policy. New York, United States of America: HarperCollins.
Goldman, A. I. (1977). Review of Lukes 1974. Theory and Decision, 8, 305-310.
Gramsci, A, (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks (Q. Hoare & G. Nowell Smith, Trad.), London, United Kingdom: Lawrence & Wishart.
Habermas, J. (2001). Remarks on discourse ethics. In J. Habermas, Justification and application. Remarks on discourse ethics (C. Cronin, Trad.) (pp. 19-111). Cambridge, United States of America: MIT.
Hay, C. (1997). Divided by a common language: political theory and the concept of power. Politics, 17(1), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.00033
Hay, C. (1999). Still divided by a common language: discontentment and the semantics of power. Politics, 19(1), 47-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.00085
Hay, C. (2002). Political analysis: a critical introduction. Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-62911-0
Hayward, C. R. (2006). On power and responsibility. Political Studies Review, 4, 156-163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.000101.x
Herzog, D. (1989). Happy slaves: a critique of consent theory. Chicago, United States of America: University of Chicago.
Hindess, B. (1976). On three-dimensional power. Political Studies, 24, 329-333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1976.tb00119.x
Hindess, B. (2006). Bringing the State back in. Political Studies Review, 4, 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.000102.x
Hobbes, T. (1909). Leviathan (reprint of the 1651 edition). Oxford, United Kingdom: Clarendon. (Original work published 1651).
Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. W. (1969). Dialektik der Aufklärung. Philosophische Fragmente [Dialectic of enlightenment]. Frankfurt, Germany: Fischer.
Hyland, J. L. (1995). Democratic theory: the philosophical foundations. Manchester, United Kingdom: Manchester University.
Isaac, J. (1982). On Benton’s “Objective Interests and the Sociology of Power”: a critique. Sociology, 16, 440-444. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038582016003009
Kearn, D. W. (2011). The hard truths about soft power. Journal of Political Power, 4, 64-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/2158379X.2011.556869
Kernohan, A. (1989). Social power and human agency. The Journal of Philosophy, 86, 712-726. https://doi.org/10.2307/2027015
La Boétie, É. de (1978). Le discours de la servitude volontaire [Discours on volontary servitude]. Paris, France: Payot (Original work published 1576).
Laïdi, Z. (2008). Norms over force. The enigma of European power. Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230614062
Layne, C. (2010). The unbearable lightness of soft power. In I. Parmar, & M. Cox, Soft power and US foreign policy. Theoretical, historical and contemporary perspectives (pp. 51-82). London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Ledyaev, V. G. (1997). Power: a conceptual analysis. Commack, United States of America: Nova Science.
Lukes, S. (1974). Power: a radical view. London, United Kingdom: Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-02248-9
Lukes, S. (1976). Reply to Bradshaw. Sociology, 10, 129-132. https://doi.org/10.1177/003803857601000110
Lukes, S. (1978). Power and authority. In T. Bottomore, & R. Nisbet, A history of sociological analysis (pp. 633-676). New York, United States of America: Basic Books.
Lukes, S. (1986). Introduction. In S. Lukes, Power (pp. 1-18). New York, United States of America: New York University.
Lukes, S. (2005). Power. A radical view (second edition). Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-80257-5
Lukes, S. (2006). Reply to comments. Political Studies Review, 4, 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.000103.x
Lukes, S. (2007). Power and the battle for hearts and minds. On the bluntness of soft power. In F. Berenskoetter, & M.J. Williams, Power in world politics (83-97). London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Lukes, S. (2011). In defense of “false consciousness”. The University of Chicago Legal Forum, vol. 2011, 19-28.
Mann, M. (1986). The sources of social power (Vol. 1). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511570896
Marcuse, H. (1964). One-dimensional man: studies in the ideology of advanced industrial society. Boston, United States of America: Beacon.
McLachlan, H. V. (1981). Is ‘power’ an evaluative concept? The British Journal of Sociology, 32, 392-410. https://doi.org/10.2307/589285
Mead, W. R. (2004). America’s Sticky Power. Foreign Policy, 141 (March/April), 46-53. https://doi.org/10.2307/4147548
Morriss, P. (2006). Steven Lukes on the concept of power. Political Studies Review, 4, 124-135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.000104.x
Nye, J. S. Jr. (1990). Soft power. Foreign Policy, 80, 153-171. https://doi.org/10.2307/1148580
Nye, J. S. Jr. (1991). Bound to Lead. The Changing Nature of American Power. New York, United States of America: Basic Books.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2002). The paradox of American power: why the world’s only superpower can’t go it alone. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2003). The velvet hegemon. How soft power can help defeat terrorism. Foreign Policy, 136 (May/June), 74-75.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2004a). Soft power. The means to success in world politics. New York, United States of America: Public Affairs.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2004b). Hard power, soft power, and “The war on terrorism”. In D. Held, & M. Koenig-Archibugi, American power in the twenty-first century (pp. 114-133). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2007). Notes for a soft-power research agenda. In F. Berenskoetter, & M.J. Williams, Power in world politics (pp. 162-172). London, United Kingdom: Routledge,.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2008). The powers to lead. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2009). Get smart: combining hard and soft power. Foreign Affairs, 88(4) (July/August), 160-163.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2010a). The future of soft power in US foreign policy. In I. Parmar, & M. Cox, Soft power and US foreign policy. Theoretical, historical and contemporary perspectives (pp. 4-11). London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2010b). Responding to my critics and concluding thoughts. In I. Parmar, & M. Cox, Soft power and US foreign policy. Theoretical, historical and contemporary perspectives (pp. 215-227). London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2011a). Future of power: its changing nature and use in the twenty-first century. New York, United States of America: Public Affairs.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2011b). My soft power. Foreign Policy, 188 (September-October), 13.
Nye, J. S. Jr. (2012). Obama and smart power. In M. Cox, & D. Stokes, US foreign policy (2. ed.) (pp. 97-107). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Parsons, T. (1951). The social system. London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Parsons, T. (1963). On the concept of political power. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 107, 232-262.
Plaw, A. (2007). Lukes’ three-dimensional model of power redux: is it still compelling? Social Theory and Practice, 33, 489-500. https://doi.org/10.5840/soctheorpract200733319
Resnik, M. D. (1987). Choices. An introduction to decision theory. Minneapolis, United States of America: University of Minnesota.
Rorty, A. O. (1983). Imagination and power. Social Science Information, 22, 801-816. https://doi.org/10.1177/053901883022006001
Rothman, S. B. (2011). Revising the soft power concept: what are the means and mechanisms of soft power? Journal of Political Power, 4, 49-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/2158379X.2011.556346
Russell, B. (1938). Power. A new social analysis. London, United Kingdom: Allen & Unwin.
Shapiro, I. (2006). On the second edition of Lukes’ third face. Political Studies Review, 4, 146-155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.000105.x
Smith, G.W. (1977). Slavery, contentment, and social freedom. Philosophical Quarterly, 27, 236-248. https://doi.org/10.2307/2218782
Smith, G.W. (1981). Must radicals be Marxists? Lukes on power, contestability and alienation. British Journal of Political Science, 11, 405-425. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400002726
Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York, United States of America: Wiley.
Thomas, W. I. (1917). The persistence of primary-group norms in present-day society and their influence in our educational system. In H. S. Jennings, J. B. Watson, A. Meyer, & W. I. Thomas, Suggestions of modern science concerning education (pp. 157-197). New York, United States of America: Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1037/10964-004
Thomas, W. I. (1966). The behavior pattern and the situation. In W. I. Thomas, W.I. Thomas on social organization and social personality (M. Janowitz, Ed.) (pp. 59-70), Chicago, United States of America: Chicago University.
Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, D. S. (1970). The child in America. Behavior problems and programs. New York, United States of America: Knopf.
Thomas, W. I., & Znaniecki, F. (1958). The Polish peasant in Europe and America. New York, United States of America: Knopf.
van Ham, P. (2010). Social power in international politics. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1057/ip.2010.31
Waismann, F. (1983). Wille und Motiv [Will and motive]. In F. Waismann, Wille und Motiv. Zwei Abhandlungen über Ethik und Handlungstheorie (pp. 5-154). Stuttgart, Germany: Reclam.
Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology (E. Fischoff et al., Trad.), Berkeley, United States of America: University of California Press. (Original work published 1921-1922).
West, D. (1987). Power and formation: new foundations for a radical concept of power. Inquiry, 30, 137-154. https://doi.org/10.1080/00201748708602114
Wrong, D. H. (1979). Power. Its forms, bases, and uses. Oxford, United Kingdom: Harper and Row.
Young, R.A. (1978). Steven Lukes’ radical view of power. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 11, 639-649. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423900042293
Zahran, G., & Ramos, L. (2010). From hegemony to soft power: implications of a conceptual change. In I. Parmar, & M. Cox, Soft power and US foreign policy. Theoretical, historical and contemporary perspectives (12-31). London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Crossmark
License
In order to support the global exchange of knowledge, the journal Las Torres de Lucca. International Journal of Political Philosophy is allowing unrestricted access to its content as from its publication in this electronic edition, and as such it is an open-access journal. The originals published in this journal are the property of the Complutense University of Madrid and any reproduction thereof in full or in part must cite the source. All content is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 use and distribution licence (CC BY 4.0). This circumstance must be expressly stated in these terms where necessary. You can view the summary and the complete legal text of the licence.
