Advancing a critical artificial intelligence theory for schooling
- Jason Christopher Toncic Universidad Estatal de Montclair https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9336-1021
Resumen
A partir de los avances en el aprendizaje automático basado en algoritmos que han tenido lugar en la última década, la inteligencia artificial (IA) se ha integrado gradualmente en los principales aspectos de la escolarización y el aprendizaje académico. Curiosamente, la historia muestra cómo a medida que las nuevas tecnologías incrementan su presencia en la sociedad, se integran de forma naturalizada y acrítica en las instituciones. Teniendo en cuenta que las escuelas producen y reproducen prácticas sociales y comportamientos normativos mediante códigos explícitos e implícitos, la introducción de la IA en las aulas podría ser una importante fuente de información sobre las escuelas. Sin embargo, esta tecnología (específicamente sus nuevas aplicaciones en el campo del aprendizaje automático) todavía no se ha utilizado para mirar, analizar e interpretar críticamente las inequidades escolares. El discurso educativo actual está más centrado en las aplicaciones prácticas de la tecnología que en las desigualdades institucionales que muestra el análisis sobre cómo la tecnología digital se está insertando en las aulas. En consecuencia, este artículo defiende la necesidad de desarrollar una teoría crítica de la inteligencia artificial y sus posibilidades para estudiar las instituciones, particularmente las escuelas. En este momento cumbre de la inteligencia habitual y su fuerte presencia tanto en los planes de estudio académicos como en el ‘currículo oculto’, es fundamental establecer una epistemología práctica que permita a los investigadores y académicos estudiar las instituciones y sus implicaciones generales.
Referencias
Anyon, J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum of work. Journal of education, 162(1), 67-92. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42741976 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002205748016200106
Apple, M. W. (1979/2018). Ideology and curriculum. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203241219
Apple, M. W. and King, N. R. (1977). What do schools teach? Curriculum Inquiry, 6(4), 341-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.1977.11075550 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03626784.1977.11075550
Barber, G. (24th October 2019). San Francisco bans agency use of facial-recognition tech. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/san-francisco-bans-use-facial-recognition-tech/
Bivens, R and Fairbairn, J. (2015). Quit Facebook, don’t sext and other futile attempts to protect youth. In Tarrant, Shira (Ed.), Gender, Sex, and Politics - In the streets and between the sheets in the 21st century (pp. 185–198). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315817798-19
Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J. C. (1990). Reproduction in education, society and culture (Vol. 4). Sage Publications.
Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976/2011). Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. Haymarket Books.
Bowyer, K. (2019). Why face recognition accuracy varies due to race. Biometric Technology Today, 8, 8-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-4765(19)30114-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-4765(19)30114-6
Brooks, R. (2008). Computation as the ultimate metaphor. 2008: What have you changed your mind about? Why? Edge. Retrieved from: https://www.edge.org/response-detail/11249
Brooks, R. (17th October 2014). The computational metaphor. Edge. https://www.edge.org/response-detail/25336
Bullock, S. (2016). Digital technologies in teacher education: From mythologies to making. In C. Kosnik, S. White, C. Beck, B. Marshall, A. L. Goodwin and J. Murray (eds.) Building Bridges (pp. 1-16). Brill Sense.
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge.
Carlson, C. (1942). US2297691A. https://patents.google.com/patent/US2297691
Carter, M. (9th October 2019). Lockport schools pull faces from facial recognition system; will only track guns. WKBW. https://www.wkbw.com/news/i-team/i-team-lockport-schools-pull-faces-from-facial-recognition-system-will-only-track-guns
Carton, A. M. and Rosette, A. (2011). Explaining bias against black leaders: Integrating theory on information processing and goal-based stereotyping. Academy of Management Journal, 54(6), 1141-1158. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0745 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0745
Castrounis, A. (2019). AI for people and business: A framework for better human experiences and business success. O'Reilly Media, Inc.
Colby, K. M., Watt, J. B. and Gilbert, J. P. (1966). A computer method of psychotherapy: Preliminary communication. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 142(2), 148-152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-196602000-00005
Condliffe, J. (18th October 2019). The week in tech: Big Brother may be watching, but for how long? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/technology/facialecognition-bans.html?module=inline
Cook, C. M., Howard, J. J., Sirotin, Y. B., Tipton, J. L. and Vemury, A. R. (2019). Demographic effects in facial recognition and their dependence on image acquisition: An evaluation of eleven commercial systems. IEEE Transactions on Biometrics, Behavior, and Identity Science, 1(1), 32-41. https://doi.10.1109/TBIOM.2019.289780 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TBIOM.2019.2897801
Cooper, J. M. and Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.) (1997). Plato: complete works. Hackett Publishing.
Crawford, K. (2016). Artificial intelligence’s white guy problem. The New York Times, 25.
Daugman, J. G. (1993, October). Brain metaphor and brain theory. In Computational neuroscience (pp. 9-18). MIT Press.
Dawkins, R. (1993). Viruses of the mind. Dennett and his critics: Demystifying mind, 13, e27.
Day, K. (2001). Constructing masculinity and women's fear in public space in Irvine. Gender,
Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, 8(2), 109-127.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690120050742 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690120050742
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan.
Dourish, P. and Bell, G. (2011). Divining a digital future: Mess and mythology in ubiquitous computing. MIT Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262015554.001.0001
Elmer-Dewitt, P. (1995). Cyberporn–on a screen near you. Time. http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983116,00.html
Feenberg, A. (2012). Questioning technology. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203022313
Flusser, V. (2012) The gesture of writing. In Nancy A. Roth (ed.) A Note on ‘The Gesture of Writing’ by Vilém Flusser and The Gesture of Writing, New Writing, 9(1), 24-41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790726.2011.583353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14790726.2011.583353
Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish. (Trans. A. Sheridan). Gallimard. Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (1978). Nietzsche, genealogy, history. In John Richardson and Brian Leiter (eds.), Nietzsche (pp. 139-164). Oxford University Press.
Foucault, M. (1990). The history of sexuality: An introduction, volume I. (Trans. R. Hurley). Vintage.
Foucault, M. (1991). The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality. University of Chicago Press.
Freire, P. (1970/2018). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Bloomsbury publishing USA.
Freud, S. (1919/2003). The uncanny. Penguin.
Gaggle (1st November 2019). The state of student safety: Through the gaggle lens. https://www.gaggle.net/wp-content/uploads/ThroughTheGaggleLens-interactive.pdf
Gallagher, M. (2010). Are schools panoptic? Surveillance and Society, 7(3/4), 262-272. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v7i3/4.4155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v7i3/4.4155
Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. Palgrave/Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/950566.950595
Gee, J. P. (2004). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203005675
Giroux, H. A. and Penna, A. N. (1979). Social education in the classroom: The dynamics of the hidden curriculum. Theory and Research in Social Education, 7(1), 21-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1979.10506048 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1979.10506048
Gitelman, L. (2014). Paper knowledge: Toward a media history of documents. Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smg09
Golding, P. (2000). Forthcoming features: information and communications technologies and the sociology of the future. Sociology, 34(1), 165-184. https://doi.org/10.1177/S0038038500000110 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0038038500000110
Goodson, I., Knobel, M., Lankshear, C. and Mangan, J. M. (2002). Cyber spaces/social spaces. In Cyber Spaces/Social Spaces (pp. 1-17). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230602151_1
Grammarly. (2019). Grammarly Premium: Elevate Your Writing. https://www.grammarly.com/premium
Green, J. (1969). Bartleby, the perfect pupil. American transcendental quarterly, 7. University of Rhode Island.
Grosvenor, I., Lawn, M. and Rousmaniere, K. (2000). Imaging past schooling: the necessity for montage. Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 22(1), 71-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/1071441000220105 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1071441000220105
Grother, P., Ngan, M. and Hanaoka, K. (2019). Ongoing face recognition vendor test. National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2019/07/03/frvt_report_2019_07_03.pdf
Haenlein, M. and Kaplan, A. (2019). A brief history of artificial intelligence: On the past, present, and future of artificial intelligence. California Management Review, 61(4), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619864925 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619864925
Halifax, J. (1856). Monthly literary record. The United States Democratic Review, 7. Lloyd and Campbell.
Hall, S. (1981). Schooling, state, and society. In Education and the state. Volume 1. Schooling and the national interest (pp. 3-29). Falmer Press.
Hamilton, D. (2013). Towards a theory of schooling (Routledge Revivals). Taylor and Francis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203799109
Haraway, D. (2006). A cyborg manifesto: Science, technology, and socialist feminism in the late 20th century. In The international handbook of virtual learning environments (pp. 117-158). Dordrecht. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-3803-7_4
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms. University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511841057
Heilbroner, R. L. (1967). Do machines make history? Technology and culture, 8(3), 335-345. https://doi.org/10.2307/3101719 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3101719
Hofstadter, D. R. (1979/1999). Gödel, Escher, Bach: an eternal golden braid.
Holland, B. (2018). Human computers: The women of NASA. History Stories. https://www.history.com/news/human-computers-women-at-nasa
Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M. and Aleven, V. (2019). Co-designing a real-time classroom orchestration tool to support teacher–AI complementarity. Journal of Learning Analytics (JLA). https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2019.62.3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2019.62.3
Illich, I. (1971). Deschooling society. Harper & Row.
Intel. (28th October 2019). Why more software development needs to go to the machines. TechXplore. https://techxplore.com/news/2019-10-software-machines.html
Intell, A. (1st October 2019). How to respond to climate change if you are an algorithm. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/open-future/2019/10/01/how-to-respond-to-climate-change-if-you-are-an-algorithm
Jenkins, H., Clinton, K., Purushotma, R., Robison, A. J. and Weigel, M. (2006). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. MacArthur Foundation.
Kamenetz, A. (12th September 2019). To prevent school shootings, districts are surveilling students online lives. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2019/09/12/752341188/when-school-safety-becomes-school-surveillance
Kant, I. (1855). Critique of Pure Reason. Bohn.
Kaplan, A. and Haenlein, M. (2019). Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who’s the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence. Business Horizons, 62(1), 15-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004
Kean, S. (2014). The Tale of the Duelling neurosurgeons: The history of the human brain as revealed by true stories of trauma, madness, and recovery. Random House.
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. The University of Chicago Press.
LaFrance, A. (28th July 2014). In 1858, people said the telegraph was ‘Too fast for the truth’ The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/07/in-1858-people-said-the-telegraph-as-too-fast-for-the-truth/375171/
Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2011). New literacies. McGraw-Hill Education.
Lee, E. (2006). Making equity explicit: a professional development model for new teacher mentors. In B. Achinstein and S. Z. Athanases (eds.) Mentors in the Making. Developing new leaders for new teachers (pp. 55-65). Teachers College Press.
Lu, J. and Harris, L. (2018). Artificial intelligence (AI) and education. Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/IF10937.pdf
MacKenzie, D. (1996). Knowing machines. Essays on technical change. MIT Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/4064.001.0001
Maderer, J. (1st September 2017). Jill Watson, round three: Georgia Tech course prepares for third semester with virtual teaching assistants. Georgia Tech News Center. http://www.news.gatech.edu/2017/01/09/jill-watson-round-three
Marsden, R. (25th June 2019). Don’t worry, we’re not actually sprouting horns from phone overuse – here’s the proof. The National. https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/don-t-worry-we-re-not-actually-sprouting-horns-from-phone-overuse-here-s-the-proof-1.878289
Marwick, A. E. (2008). To catch a predator? The MySpace moral panic. First Monday, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v13i6.2152 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v13i6.2152
Marx, K. (1867/1978). Capital, I. 1867 (Trans. Ben Fowkes).
McCorduck, P. (2004). Machines who think: A personal inquiry into the history and prospects of artificial intelligence. Routledge DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429258985
McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy: The making of typographic man. University of Toronto Press.
Moon, L. (28th October 2018). Pay attention at the back: Chinese school installs facial recognition cameras to keep an eye on pupils. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2146387/pay-attention-back-chinese-school-installsfacial-recognition
Morris, D. (10th October 2016). Ashley Madison confirms it used chatbots to lure cheaters, then threatened to expose them when they complained. Fortune. https://fortune.com/2016/07/10/ashley-madison-chatbots/
Morse, J. (13th June 2019). Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez joins growing chorus of facial recognition critics. Mashable. https://mashable.com/article/alexandria-ocasio-cortez-facial-recognition-technology-privacy/
Nance, J. P. (2016). Student surveillance, racial inequalities, and implicit racial bias. Emory LJ, 66, 765.
Nasaw, D. (1999). Going out: The rise and fall of public amusements. Harvard University Press.
Nietzsche, F. (1998). On the genealogy of morality. Hackett Publishing. Original work published 1887.
Orwell, G. (2017). 1984 and animal farm. Text Publishing.
Ostrom, A. L., Fotheringham, D. and Bitner, M. J. (2019). Customer acceptance of AI in service encounters: understanding antecedents and consequences. In Handbook of service science, volume II (pp. 77-103). Springer, Cham. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98512-1_5
Owen, D. (2004). Copies in seconds: Chester Carlson and the birth of the xerox machine. Simon 81.
Plato. (1925). Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 9 (Harold N. Fowler, Trans.). University Press; William Heinemann Ltd.
Postman, N. (1979). Teaching as a conserving activity. Delacorte Press.
Reed, F. (13th April 2006). Promise of AI not so bright. Washington Times. https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/apr/13/20060413-105217-7645r/
Reese, B. (2018). The fourth age: Smart robots, conscious computers, and the future of humanity. Simon and Schuster.
Rimm, M. (1994). Marketing pornography on the information superhighway: A survey of 917,410 images, descriptions, short stories, and animations downloaded 8.5 million times by consumers in over 2000 cities in forty countries, provinces, and territories. Geo LJ, 83, 1849.
Robertson-Lorant, L. (1998). Melville: A biography. Univ of Massachusetts Press.
Rooney, B. (11th July 2011). Women and children first: technology and moral panic. Tech Europe. The Wall Street Journal. https://web.archive.org/web/20110713215618/https://blogs.wsj.com/techeurope/2011/07/11/women-and-children-first-technology-and-moral-panic/
Rorty, R. (1979). Philosophy and the mirror of nature. Princeton University.
Rosenbaum, J. E. (1976). The hidden curriculum of high school tracking. Wiley.
Rosette, A., Leonardelli, G. J. and Phillips, K. W. (2008). The white standard: racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(4), 758-777. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.758
Schieffelin, B. B. and Ochs, E. (1986). Language socialization. Annual Review of Anthropology, 15(1), 163- 191. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.15.100186.001115 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.15.100186.001115
Schuster, M., Johnson, M. and Thorat, N. (22 November 2016). Zero-shot translation with Google’s multilingual neural machine translation system. Google AI Blog. https://ai.googleblog.com/2016/11/zero-shot-translation-with-googles.html
Selinger, E. and Hartzog, W. (17th October 2019). What happens when employers can read your facial expressions? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/17/opinion/facial-recognition-ban.html
Selwyn, N. (2013). Distrusting educational technology: Critical questions for changing times. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315886350
Sgoutas-Emch, S., Baird, L., Myers, P., Camacho, M. and Lord, S. (2016). We're not all white men: using a cohort/cluster approach to diversify STEM faculty hiring. Thought and Action, 32(1), 91-107.
Shade, L. R. and Singh, R. (2016). ‘Honestly, we’re not spying on kids’: School surveillance of young people’s social media. Social Media+ Society, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116680005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116680005
Shelley, M. W. (2009). Frankenstein, or, the modern Prometheus, 1818. Engage Books, AD Classic. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/owc/9780199537167.001.0001
Shmoop. (17th October 2019). Bartleby the scrivener summary. https://www.shmoop.com/bartleby-the-scrivener/summary.html
Simonite, T. (24th October 2019). The best algorithms struggle to recognize black faces equally. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/best-algorithms-struggle-recognize-black-faces-equally/
Simonite, T. and Barber, G. 24th October 2019). The delicate ethics of using facial recognition in schools. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/delicate-ethics-facial-recognition-schools/
Singer, N. (13th July 2018). Microsoft urges Congress to regulate use of facial recognition technology. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/13/technology/microsoft-facial-recognition.html?module=inline
Singer, N. (24th January 2019). Amazon is pushing facial technology that a study says could be biased. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/24/technology/amazon-facial-technology-study.html?module=inline
Stanley, J. (24th October 2019). The dawn of robot surveillance: AI, video analytics, and privacy. ACLU. https://www.aclu.org/report/dawn-robot-surveillance
Stiegler, B. (2019). The age of disruption. Polity.
Street, B. V. (1997). Social literacies. In Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 133-141). Dordrecht. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4540-4_15
Tegmark, M. (19h August 2017). Life 3.0: Being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Knopf.
The New York Times. (1858). Latest by telegraph: The overland pacific mails. https://www.nytimes.com/1858/08/19/archives/latest-by-telegraph-the-overland-pacific-mailsthe-cassyrissari.html
The New York Times (9th September 1861). Kentucky invaded by rebels. https://www.nytimes.com/1861/09/09/archives/kentucky-invaded-by-the-rebels.html
Toncic, J. (2020). Teachers, AI grammar checkers, and the newest literacies: emending writing pedagogy and assessment. Digital Culture and Education, 12(1), 26-51
Trammell, K. (25th September 2019). Your Amazon Alexa can sound just like Samuel L. Jackson. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/25/business/samuel-jackson-amazon-alexa-trnd/index.html
Turkle, S. (2017). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Hachette.
Vallance, E. (1974). Hiding the hidden curriculum: An interpretation of the language of justification in nineteenth-century educational reform. Curriculum Theory Network, 4(1), 5-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1179123
Wajcman, J. (2000). Reflections on gender and technology studies: in what state is the art? Social studies of science, 30(3), 447-464. https://doi.org/10.1177/030631200030003005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030631200030003005
Wajcman, J. (2001). Gender and technology. International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (volume 9). Elsevier. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/03170-3
Ward, B. (1961). The student journalist and writing editorials. Richards Rosen Press.
Weaver, R. M. (1919). The Centennial of Herman Melville. The Nation, 109(2), 145-146.
Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason: From judgment to calculation. W. H. Freeman and Co.
Werner, D. S. (2012). Myth and Philosophy in Plato's Phaedrus. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139108737
Zellers, R., Holtzman, A., Rashkin, H., Bisk, Y., Farhadi, A., Roesner, F., Choi, Y. (23rd Septemeber 2019). GROVER — A State-of-the-Art Defense against Neural Fake News. https://grover.allenai.org/
Formato
Licencia
La revista Teknokultura, para fomentar el intercambio global del conocimiento, facilita el acceso sin restricciones a sus contenidos desde el momento de su publicación en la presente edición electrónica, y por eso es una revista de acceso abierto. Los originales publicados en esta revista son propiedad de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid y es obligatorio citar su procedencia en cualquier reproducción total o parcial. Todos los contenidos se distribuyen bajo una licencia de uso y distribución Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 (CC BY 4.0). Esta circunstancia ha de hacerse constar expresamente de esta forma cuando sea necesario. Puede consultar la versión informativa y el texto legal de la licencia.








