Hagar, Bilhah, and Zilpah: Use, Misuse, and Abuse of Enslaved Reproductive Bodies in Seventeenth-Century Mediterranean Painting. From Visual Exegesis to Iconographical Absence

Abstract

This paper investigates the visual representations—or the marked absence—of Hagar, Bilhah, and Zilpah, three enslaved women in the Book of Genesis, within seventeenth-century Mediterranean painting. Drawing on feminist biblical criticism, art historical analysis, and visual exegesis, it explores how artists in Catholic regions such as Italy and Spain engaged with the iconography of these biblical figures. The study considers how artworks either reproduce or challenge the patriarchal ideologies embedded in Scripture and reflected in early modern theology and culture. Through the analysis of selected paintings, it reveals how silence, abjection, and guilt were visually encoded into the stories of these women, shaping their reception across time. It also contrasts Catholic visual traditions with Dutch Protestant interpretations, illuminating the theological and cultural dynamics at play. The research shows how artistic strategies—such as composition, gesture, and emotion—contributed to the marginalization or subversion of these figures. Ultimately, the paper argues that early modern art participated in the ideological work of biblical interpretation, acting as both a mirror and a critique of patriarchal structures. In doing so, it contributes to broader debates at the intersection of gender, religion, and visual culture, and expands the discourse on how enslaved and silenced biblical women are negotiated through image.