'Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones
Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones (ISSN 1135-4712, ISSN-e 1988-3269) is an annual journal published by the Complutense University of Madrid’s Institute of Religious Sciences, founded in 1995. It publishes scientific articles on disciplines included in religious studies: History of religions and the religious phenomena, Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Philosophy, Law, Literature and philological study of religious texts throughout history. It is therefore a multidisciplinary scientific journal and this extends to its recipients. It comprises the following sections: Articles, Bibliographic Newsletter, Notes and Reviews. The journal accepts contributions in Spanish, English, French, German and Italian.
In order to support the global exchange of knowledge, the journal Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones is allowing unrestricted access to its content as from its publication in this electronic edition, and as such it is an open-access journal. The originals published in this journal are the property of the Complutense University of Madrid and any reproduction thereof in full or in part must cite the source. All content is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 use and distribution licence (CC BY 4.0). This circumstance must be expressly stated in these terms where necessary. You can view the summary and the complete legal text of the licence.
Representations of priests in Russian and Polish literature in the 19th century and their social conditioning
This article compares the representation of clergymen in Russian and Polish literature of the 19th century, with a special focus on its second half. It looks to demonstrate that these portrayals combined everlasting characteristics resulting from their orientation to the archetype of Christ as the High Priest with those characteristics more socially conditioned; which ultimately transformed European society’s relationship with the respective Churches. Despite numerous differences, Polish and Russian literary representations of priests also bear several similarities in terms of how the Christian Church and its clergymen strove to achieve social engagement on a Pan-European level.
Copyright (c) 2025 'Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones
Alamūt, Ismailism and Ḫwāǧah Qāsim Tuštarī’s Work Recognizing God
Drawing extensively on the testimony of the VII-VIII/XIII-XIV century Persian historians, this article sketches a detailed picture of several personalities involved in founding the nascent Ismaili state centred at Alamūt in the V/XI century. This background sets the stage for analyzing a new manuscript source documenting Ismaili history and thought of this period, Khwājah Qāsim Tushtarī’s Recognizing God (Maʿrifat-i Khudāy taʿālā). After outlining and amending previous scholarship on this author and surveying the text’s extant manuscript and lithographic sources, the article analyzes the historical references, focusing on the figure of Sharaf al-Dīn Muḥammad, and examining the evolution of the Ismaili leadership structure. It argues for a likely date of composition between 525/1131 and 533/1139, making Tushtari’s Recognizing God one of the oldest Ismaili texts from Alamūt still in existence.
From necromancy to Le Baron-Samedi: the creation of a Voodoo cult
In three decades of the 20th century, an enormous evolution of a particular Voodoo cult took place in Haiti and Louisiana. In this paper we present evidence that, from a ritual and a concept very similar to necromancy and the cult of the Dead in Spain and Europe, the Guedé and their chief and father, Le Baron-Samedi, have come to constitute in the belief and practice of this magical-religious system a very hierarchical group of spirits, of great popularity, considered very valuable to maintain the spiritual balance as well as the knowledge of the ancestors, they are guardians of the children, «gods» of fertility, and give good advice in the ceremonies. With some testimonies that even point to their deification, this cult shows us a self-development of Voodoo in America, starting in origin fundamentally from European elements.
Evolution of the Image of Xīwángmǔ in Chinese Mythology: from Semi-Beast into Taoist Deity
In this study, we will analyze the evolution of the depiction of Xiwangmu across four stages of Chinese history: her original portrayal as a semi-beast in Shanhaijing; her subsequent humanization in Mu Tianzi Zhuan; her transformation into a Taoist deity during the Han dynasty, and finally, her depiction as a tangible character in folk tales and classical medieval poetry. We will delve into the reasons behind this significant shift in the portrayal of Xiwangmu, examining factors such as the aesthetic sensibilities of ancient Chinese society, the development of Taoism, and the influence of literature on the evolution of this goddess's image.
«Demons and Witches»: Haraway’s Articulation Model Applied to the Understanding of Galician Popular Medicine
The study is based on Haraway's articulation model to examine popular medicine in Galicia, which proposes a situated perspective and rejects the separation between the natural and the social. According to Haraway, through both human and non-human elements, narratives are constructions that give meanings to events in the lives of individuals within a network of significances. From this perspective, the research has three objectives: to analyze what is understood as illeness and its causes, to study the figure of the healer and the acquisition of their knowledge, and to explore the patient's experience. To address the situation, a couple of in-depth interviews were conducted with selected profiles, chosen for their knowledge and experience in Galician popular medicine. Although the study is grounded in a conceptual and methodological theoretical frameworks, its purpose is not limited to reviewing existing literature but aims to generate new knowledge and propose a theoretical stance on the subject. The findings reveal a reformulation of traditional doctor-patient roles toward more democratic relationships, where community and family play a central role. Knowledge is constructed «by the people and for the people», validating and legitimizing concerns through a logic shared by all involved, in contrast with conventional medical logics and timelines. This approach allows for understanding how practices, knowledge, and meanings are organized in Galician popular medicine from a situated, embodied, and relational perspective.
The problems of the Jewish πολίτευμα in Alexandria and their causes. The relevance of the idea of «ὁ μισόκαλος φθόνος» at the root of the conflict, according to Philo
The Hebrew community, present in Egypt since time immemorial, constituted in Alexandria a πολίτευμα or civic body, with its own statute, integrated but at the same time differentiated from the common normative framework. Jewish singularities were evident through a series of concessions granted by different rulers. From the beginning the Jewish community was viewed with envy, but this situation, considered a privilege and rejected by the majority, over time generated a feeling of repulsion and hatred that complicated coexistence in the metropolis, and It ended up manifesting itself in the persecution and attack on the Jews in 38 AD. C. In this article we analyze the meaning and relevance of the element ʽenvyʼ (φθόνος), to which Philo grants great importance within the treatise, in relation to the Alexandrian social conflict.
Notes on Christian communities in the Maghrebi biographical dictionary of Abū l-ʽArab (10th century)
The consideration of Muslim about Christians between the 9th and 10th centuries in the Maghreb and, in particular, in the Ifrīqiya region, can be analyzed through Arabic biographical dictionaries, particularly in the Ṭabaqāt ʽulamāʼ Ifrīqiya of Abū l-ʽArab (d. 333/945), author of the oldest work, within the mālikí school, of this textual genre about the ulemas of this territory. The fragments presented in this contribution show an opposition to the christian community and, at the same time, the existence of common moral values, a framework in which the figure of Jesus, as seen in these examples, plays a prominent role. The work aims to be a contribution to the studies of the phases of consolidation of Islam in the Ifrīqiya region in a double aspect: distinction of Islam from other communities, on the one hand, and continuity with the monotheistic tradition, on the other. I also intend to offer these texts in Spanish in order to make them available to a wider public.
The Influence of the Christian Idea of Paradox on Democratic Though
The current crisis of Western democracy is caused, at least in part, by the citizens’ ignorance regarding this political regime. Western democracies are indebted to four traditions, namely: ancient Greece, the Roman Republic, Judeo-Christian thought, and Modernity. This work focuses on democracy’s debt to the Christian idea of paradox. I begin this work by looking at the exchange between materialist philosopher, Slavoj Žižek, and radical orthodox, John Milbank, on whether Christianity is best understood in terms of Hegelian dialectics or rather as essentially paradoxical. Subscribing to Milbank’s thesis about the place of paradox in Christianity, I then study the term more deeply in the works of Henri de Lubac (one of Milbank’s main influences) and then apply it to democratic theory in order to show that, without a proper understanding of the place of «paradox» in democracy, it is difficult to see how powerful this political regime is in protecting human beings from autocracy, oppression and, eventually, tyranny.
Individualisation and religion: A theoretical analysis based on Elias, Simmel, and Durkheim for the contemporary chilean religious context
Through a theoretical dialogue between Elias, Simmel, and Durkheim, this article examines how the dynamics of individualism manifest in religious practices in Chile. It argues that these perspectives provide a conceptual framework for interpreting phenomena such as religious individualism and religious optionality in the contemporary Chilean context. First, the analysis focuses on Elias's theory, which, while not specifically conceptualising the religious phenomenon, offers valuable tools for its analysis, as detailed here. Secondly, it explores Simmel's contributions to understanding the religious phenomenon, alongside his analyses of individualism, interaction in urban life, and the development of trust at the social level. Additionally, attention is given to the lived religion approach in Latin American context, dure to its emphasis on the personal dimension of religious life. Finally, the conclusions highlight the presence of an individualism characterised by an autonomous and personal relationship with the religious phenomenon, which, at the same time, retains a relational character, as it is grounded in the interpersonal bonds that individuals develop and maintain.
Situated Theologies in South Korea and Argentina: A Comparative Study of Minjung Theology and the Theology of the People During 20th-Century Authoritarian Regimes
The history of Christianity in Korea dates back to the 18th century; however, it was not until the 1960s and 1970s that Korean theology professors developed original formulations of an autonomous theology that had a major impact not only on Christianity but also on democracy movements. Unlike Korea, the origin of Catholicism in Argentina dates back to the Spanish conquest during the 16th century, long before the existence of the Argentine state. However, like Korea, nativist theological discussions first emerged in the 1960s. This Christian revisionism gave rise to Korean Minjung Theology and Argentine Theology of the People, which share significant similarities in their categories of people and popular culture as key principles for understanding the history of people's struggles and suffering in their respective contexts. Despite these similarities, there are no comparative works on the two theological movements. Recovering the debates on theological indigenization from the comparative methodology proposed by Geertz for the study of beliefs, the hypothesis guiding this article claims that, at the antipodes of the world, in two dissimilar religious contexts without contact with each other, two contextual theologies similar in their key theological principles emerge at the same time. This study is based on a qualitative methodology with triangulation of sources and fieldwork conducted in Argentina and South Korea between 2022 and 2024.
Anthropological characterization of shadows as an aspect of the multiple soul in pre-state societies
The concept of multiple soul has been analysed on numerous occasions. However, the elements that compose it have not always received the necessary attention in an individualised way. This has been the case of the shadow as one of its vital principles. For this reason, we first reflect on the philosophical and anthropological bases on which this idea rests, placing special emphasis on the primitive mentality and the principle of participation proposed by the French anthropologist Lévy-Bruhl. The second part deals with the particular study of the shadow among pre-state societies, making an extensive review of the characteristics attributed to it by these communities. Among them, it is considered that this part of the soul exists during the life of the individual, being able to separate from the body and survive after physical death. From that moment on, in most cases it goes to the netherworld or remains next to the corpse.
Professionals and Health Therapies in Unaffiliated Spiritualities: An Invisible but Central Field for Contemporary Self-Care
Unaffiliated spiritualities refer to individuals who identify with some form of spirituality, belief, or practice related to the sacred or the supernatural, but who are not formally associated with any established organization, church, or religious tradition. These individuals may, for example, engage in meditation, yoga, mindfulness, read sacred texts from various religions, or participate in rituals. This article presents the main findings of a study that mapped practices and professionals who self-identify as spiritual across various online platforms in the Community of Madrid. Additionally, 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted with professionals. A total of 854 individuals and entities (associations, centers, shops) were identified. Among the most notable characteristics observed are the emergence of a service-oriented spirituality, the diversity of practices offered, and the heterogeneity of professional profiles. The article focuses particularly on professionals and techniques specifically oriented toward the health sector, which account for 29% of its services. The most frequently offered techniques are tarot (31%), reiki (22%), and meditation (13%). The predominance of health-oriented services makes it possible to extend healthcare beyond the boundaries of conventional medicine and to create an intermediate space between formal and informal care practices. Overall, the findings confirm the stable presence of a group of entities and professionals whose practices operate at the intersection of spirituality and health, and who promote self-care within the contemporary context of Madrid.
Flores Rivas, María (2023): Anima animalis: El alma de los animales en la Grecia arcaica, Madrid, Abada Editores, 510 pp. ISBN 978-84-19008-35-0
Martín Navarro, Alejandro (2023): Una sabiduría salvaje. Nietzsche y la religión de la abundancia. Sevilla: Fundación José Manuel Lara, pp. 172. ISBN: 978-84-19132-25-3
Unamuno, Zubiri, and Bueno. A discussion of their philosophies of religion from the perspectives immortality, reality, and matter
Unamuno, Zubiri, and Bueno are three philosophers of religion who have set trends in Spanish philosophy of religion over the last hundred years. Unamuno places the core of religion in the yearning for carnal immortality. Zubiri places it in the foundation of reality upon which every human being lives. Bueno theorizes a development of religion in three stages, the first of which asserts that animals were the original gods. These three different views have generated schools of thought, and several empirical investigations could take them as their starting point. The three authors share a common language and a culture inspired by Christianity, although their personal positions are very different (heterodox, catholic, and atheist respectively). Furthermore, all three do not found their theories on ideal abstractions. Instead, they ground their theories on the man in flesh and blood (Unamuno), on reality (Zubiri), and on the numinous prehistoric animals (Bueno).
Hellenisation of Christianity and Christianisation of Hellenism. A philosophical perspective
The issue of the Hellenization of Christianity has been widely debated, albeit not continuously, for at least two centuries now. This period has seen different positions confronting each other on whether or not it is appropriate to use philosophical, and specifically Greek categories in theological reflection. After a brief overview, the article aims to develop philosophical considerations in support of the legitimacy of using philosophical concepts in the framework of revealed faith. Secondly, the mirror image of the initial theme is addressed, namely the Christianization of Hellenism, whereby Christianity is said to have introduced decisive content for the full completion of philosophical inquiry. In this regard, it will be argued how philosophy could have arrived at its internal rigorization on its own, although history took a different path.
On the Concept and Reality of Religion: a dialogue with Andrea Aguti
This paper examines de object and scientific status of the Philosophy of Religion, following Andrea Aguti's proposal. First, we address objections to the concept of "religion" and the legitimacy of the Philosophy of Religion. We then explore how philosophical inquiry relates to theology, psychology, anthropology, and propositional logic. Our aim is to highlight the specific contributions of the Philosophy of Religion within the scientific debate and define the concept of "religion".
"Our sea lies open again". Romano Guardini's contribution to the debate on secularisation
In this article, we explore Guardini’s perspective on the origin of cultural secularisation and the relationship between the Catholic Church and the modern secularised world. In particular, we consider the text La fine dell’epoca moderna and his manuscripts on Nietzsche, published in the volume of Guardini’s Opera Omnia Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Sémer. We make this comparison because, at first glance, the first text clearly reveals an inevitable contrast between the contemporary world and Christianity, while in the unpublished manuscripts, Guardini offers a personal interpretation of Così parlò Zarathustra, moving from direct criticism to an appreciation of Nietzsche’s words. The Italian-German thinker also states that atheism reacts to an inadequate way of living faith, to a false image of God. Therefore, a believer can interpret secularisation as a form of purification of his faith. Finally, Guardini highlights in many works that God, as creator, gives us our world. Therefore, human life is good by its very nature, and every human being is called by God, regardless of whether they are believers or not, to make their existence flourish. By considering carefully Guardini’s concept of a secularised world, we would like to offer an analysis of his contribution to the debate around secularisation, going beyond Rosino Gibellini’s interpretation.
How Not to Turn Water into Wine: John Wippel’s Thomistic Appraisal of the Possibility of a Christian Philosophy
In the present paper we revisit and analyze the thought of John Wippel on the topic of the legitimacy or otherwise of a Christian philosophy, a debate which involved some of the towering figures of twentieth-century European philosophy, such as Étienne Gilson, Jacques Maritain, and Fernand Van Steenberghen. Wippel’s Thomistic appraisal of the possibility of a Christian philosophy values the key distinction between the order/moment of discovery and the order/moment of proof. This distinction allows him to accept the expression in the first order/moment, but not in the second. His understanding of the issue captures two essential aspects, which any debate around Christian philosophy should always safeguard. The first aspect is methodological, since it distinguishes between philosophy and theology, reason and faith. The second aspect is existential, because it stresses the personal character of the philosophical quest undertaken by every Christian philosopher. For these reasons, Wippel’s classic, Thomistic understanding of the concept of Christian philosophy is still relevant today, and deserves to be rediscovered.
Medieval Apophaticism and the Standard Narrative on Metaphors
Apophaticism is usually defined as the view according to which God’s essence is unknowable and, thus, ineffable. Despite constituting a venerable tradition in all global faiths, it has been largely ignored by analytic philosophers of religion. In the past decade, efforts have been made to rectify such a situation, and some scholars have sought support for their apophatic views in medieval sources. Against this background, the present paper aims to contribute by offering a new and more accurate depiction of medieval apophaticism. More specifically, the claim is that it should not be conceived as a continuous theoretical spectrum. Departing from the scholarly mainstream, the paper proposes to distinguish between two discrete kinds: ‘moderate apophaticism’ and ‘radical apophaticism’ – the latter of which has gone unnoticed in the relevant literature. It will be shown that these two independent positions – exemplified by Thomas Aquinas and John Scotus Eriugena, respectively – derive from opposite conceptions of God. To highlight the relevance of this proposal, the paper will demonstrate how the recognition of radical apophaticism leads to challenging the so-called ‘standard narrative’ on metaphors, especially regarding whether they could be admitted into philosophy.
Philosophy of Religion in Spanish Language. Comparison between two "hermeneutic Moments"
This article aims to offer a general reflection on the philosophy of religion in the Spanish language, with particular attention to its aspects and development in the 20th century. After a general introduction, which attempts to provide specific information regarding the presence of the philosophy of religion in the Spanish and Latin American cultural landscape, we will move on to a comparison between the thought of two authors who can be considered emblematic of the development of the discipline in the Spanish language. The thought of both authors will be taken into consideration to show how the philosophy of religion is conceived from an abandonment of the dimension of demonstrative reason in favor of the assumption of a hermeneutic perspective. It is precisely this perspective, oriented in a symbolic key, that allows the philosophy of religion to develop specific attention to the structure of religious experience and its common characteristics in all religions. In this way, the philosophy of religion also presents itself as a generator of interreligious dialogue and, therefore, capable of defusing the rise of fundamentalist violence.
Natural Theology and Philosophy of Religion: the Opportunity for a Renewed Relationship
In this essay, I argue that, after modernity, the time has come to reconnect the philosophy of religion with natural theology. After recalling the characteristics of the rebirth of natural theology in contemporary analytical philosophy of religion, and by contrast its absence in continental philosophy, I consider the advantages of the renewed relationship between natural theology and philosophy of religion from a threefold perspective: a) to understand the nature of religion; b) to ensure a critical function of the philosophy of religion; c) to guarantee a rational justification of religious beliefs in the view of a religious apologetics. I conclude the essay with some observations on the enduring contribution that Thomas Aquinas’ thought can make to the renewal of the relationship between natural theology and the philosophy of religion.
Explorando las fronteras de la filosofía de la religión
Cuando exploramos fronteras siempre es una aventura. La metáfora del viaje, de una ruta que recorrer en territorios salvajes e inexplorados ha acompañado a la filosofía occidental desde sus inicios. La palabra griega méthodos expresa claramente la idea de un camino (hodós) recorrido. Desde Parmenides y Platón hasta Rosmini, desde Agustín hasta Heidegger, desde Descartes hasta Gadamer, esta imagen se ha repetido constantemente, transmitiendo la idea de una búsqueda intelectual que expresa de manera razonada el inexorable deseo de sentido que toda persona, al vivir, encarna. La filosofía, de hecho, siempre parte de la vida y vuelve a ella para darle forma y orientarla. Por lo tanto, es natural que acabe cuestionando el fenómeno religioso, que por su naturaleza tiende a elaborar explicaciones de sentido universales y omnicomprensivas.
Dynda, Jiří, Slavic Paganism in Medieval Christian Writings. Ink, Cross and Pagan Gods, Leiden, Brill, 2025, 320 pp. ISBN 978-90-04-68880-3
Piñero, Antonio (2025): Gnosis. Conocimiento de lo oculto. La gnosis judía y cristiana explicada por sus textos, Madrid, Trotta, 456 pp. ISBN: 978-84-1364-307-6
Herrero de Jáuregui, Miguel (2023): Catábasis: El viaje infernal en la Antigüedad, Madrid, Alianza Editorial, 503 pp. ISBN: 978-84-1148-208-0
De Hoz, María-Paz (ed.) (2024): Cantando a los dioses, Madrid, Guillermo Escolar Editor S.L., 400 pp. ISBN: 978-84-19782-69-4
El volumen recoge una serie de artículos que hablan de diferentes tradiciones hímnicas pertenecientes a un extenso rango temporal –desde finales del tercer milenio a. C. hasta época helenística y romana– y espacial –desde el antiguo Oriente al mundo grecorromano oriental–.
González González, Alberto (2024): La fe católica, trinchera política. izquierdas y derechas en la guerra cultural: Toledo (1931-1939), Madrid, Sílex Universidad-Historia. 456 páginas. ISBN: 978-84-19077-88-2
González González, Alberto. 2024. La fe católica, trinchera política. izquierdas y derechas en la guerra cultural: Toledo (1931-1939). Madrid: Sílex Universidad-Historia. 456 páginas. ISBN: 978-84-19077-88-2
Aránguiz Kahn, Luis (2022): Cristianismo sionista. Los evangélicos chilenos y el apoyo al Estado de Israel, Santiago de Chile, Editorial Universidad de Santiago de Chile, 179 pp. ISBN 978-956-303-543-8
The Death of the Others: A Comparative Analysis of the Management of Islamic and Jewish Funeral Spaces in the Community of Madrid
The funeral issue can be understood as a total social fact involving historical, social, political, symbolic, legal, or economic matters. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the demands and needs regarding funeral matters of the Jewish and Muslim communities in the territory of the Autonomous Community of Madrid as a case study. Both religions share a history of uprooting and persecution in Spanish society, which has been essentially Catholic for centuries, as well as a process of recovery and re-legitimization in contemporary times. In the current postsecular context, laws recognize both communities' right to practice thir respective funeral rites, which have elements that are discordant with the majority social practice, and to have their own cemeteries of those enabled by public administrations. However, Jews and Muslims experience differential access to this right in the Community of Madrid. The objective of this work is to address the reasons for this difference, which are related to the recent history of both communities, their processes of institutionalization, their sociodemographic characteristics, and the symbolic problems that their presence raises.
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