Complutum (ISSN 1131-6993, ISSN-e 1988-2327), which was published annually up to issue 18 and biannually after that, was founded in 1991 by Professor Martín Almagro Gorbea. The publication disseminates high quality archaeological research to the national and international community in all fields, with a particular focus on the Prehistory of the Iberian Peninsula. It predominantly deals with theoretical, methodological and interdisciplinary works, in addition to summaries of new areas of research on reports concerning archaeological sites, museum collections or exceptional archaeological pieces. The journal accepts articles written from different theoretical positions and supports gender equality in the scientific field. One of the two annual volumes presents articles on a variety of topics whilst the other generally focuses on one topic, with one or several editors responsible for its content. Both also offer a review section and a scientific news.
In order to support the global exchange of knowledge, the journal Complutum is allowing unrestricted access to its content as from its publication in this electronic edition, and as such it is an open-access journal. The originals published in this journal are the property of the Complutense University of Madrid and any reproduction thereof in full or in part must cite the source. All content is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 use and distribution licence (CC BY 4.0). This circumstance must be expressly stated in these terms where necessary. You can view the summary and the complete legal text of the licence.
Rock grinding equipment (EMR) in the northwest Iberian: Towards a territorial characterization
This study presents the results of a systematic analysis of more than 170 sites with Rock-Cut Grinding Equipment (EMR) located in the northwestern Iberian Peninsula, examined in recent years. Until now, the lack of detailed studies has hindered the understanding and contextualization of these assemblages, despite their significance for the knowledge of the Recent Prehistory of this region. Their relevance lies both in their connection to representational spaces and in their uniqueness within the Iberian context. In this study, a typological analysis of EMR has been carried out in relation to the production of millstones and mortars, examining their territorial distribution in the region. To achieve this, photogrammetry has been used as the primary research tool, allowing the acquisition of volumetric and morphometric data from 1,144 structures, comprising 502 millstones and 642 mortars. The main results of the techno-morphological analysis reveal the existence of a technical convention and an Operational Sequence in the manufacture of these structures. Additionally, up to four distinct EMR typologies have been identified, establishing relationships between artifact components (millstones and mortars), as well as variations in their size and working volume.
Discourses of Power (also) in Feminine in the Iberian Cemeteries in the South-East of the Iberian Peninsula (6th-3rd centuries BCE)
This article proposes new interpretations of the role of women in Iron Age communities in south-east Iberia. Based on the study of several necropolises in the region, it presents a model of social organisation in which women are a key part of the power structure. The chronological scope of these necropolises demonstrates the evolution of this society over the centuries. Thanks to anthropological studies of the bone remains in the tombs, we know that women were highly represented in the necropolises of the middle centuries of the first millennium BCE. Many of these women were also buried in prominent locations, inaugurating funerary spaces that would later be used for new burials and which gave order to the necropolis. The grave goods that accompany these individuals also reveal a high social status, often associated with productive activities such as textiles, which played a significant role in the economic structure of these communities.
The skull as a container for the soul in the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula
This paper analyzes the special treatment that the skull received in some funerary contexts dating to the Bronze Age and the I Iron Age in the western quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula. After addressing the case studies, it is proposed -based on multiple archaeological and textual parallels from the Near East, the Mediterranean, and Central Europe between the third and first millennia BC, as well as ethnographic evidence, that the soul, or one of the vital forces that comprise the individual, resides in the head. On this basis, the philosophical and anthropological foundations on which this idea rests are explored, with particular emphasis the principle of participation as a theoretical framework.
The significance of acorns in the daily life and cultural imagination of the pre-Roman peoples of the Meseta: the case of Numantia (4th-2nd century B.C.)
This article analyses the role of acorns in the daily life and collective imagination of the Meseta communities during the Late Iron Age, focusing on the oppidum of Numantia. Based on the study of classical sources, it examines the climate and acorn consumption, linking them to archaeobotanical evidence from the archaeological record. The exploitation of acorns from holm oaks and other Quercus species is explored, highlighting their economic and nutritional significance. The iconography of the acorn in the pre-Roman context is addressed as a symbolic indicator of its cultural value. Through a GIS approach, potential land use maps are presented to contextualise the availability of forest resources in the Numantia area, complemented by estimates of the oppidum’s population and territory. Finally, the productive capacities of acorns and their nutritional contribution are discussed, assessing their potential as a food resource in a context marked by agricultural and climatic limitations. The conclusions emphasise the importance of acorns not only as a food resource but also as an integrative element in the Numantine economy and collective imagery.
The emergence of the Iberian image. A chronological review of the figurative vascular painting of Cabecico del Tesoro and his workshop (Verdolay, Murcia)
The problem of chronology in Iberian pottery is intrinsic to the material itself. The lack of documentation when excavating the contexts in which it appears has meant that these productions have only begun to be grouped together around workshops, series and painters since the late 20th century and early 21st century. This same problem has also had an impact in the case of Cabecico del Tesoro, where the necropolis remains unpublished ninety years after excavations began. Thus, the direct review of all the pieces in the necropolis and the identification of some imported and/or imitated materials in undated graves allow us not only to provide chronology for the local production of the Verdolay workshop, but also to bring together its production series and even search for their origin. The work proposes the hypothesis that the start of the workshop coincides with the end of the Second Punic War and with a possible transfer of craftsmen from other regions such as Edetania in search of new markets after the destruction of the oppida where they were settled.
Blood-curdling battles and war dances in Iberia? Reflections and insights from literary and iconographic sources
This study critically examines the hypothesis of non-lethal ritual combat and warrior dances in ancient Iberian societies. Through a multidisciplinary methodology combining analysis of Greco-Roman literary sources, iconographic, and comparative historical frameworks, the research challenges the existence of bloodless duels in pre-Roman Iberia. The literary record reveals eight documented single combats between the years 206 and 45 BCE, all culminating in fatalities except one ambiguous account. Iconography consistently depicts lethal outcomes, with weapons piercing bodies or corpses present, while collective “war dances” are distinguished, among other things, by the absence of direct confrontation. We get to the conclusions that non-lethal duels are anachronistic projections of modern honor codes onto ancient contexts, where weapons served lethal purposes and Iberian iconography differentiates between mortal combat and ritual group dances.
Ossigitania and Ossigi Latonium: current state of research and proposals for their archaeological definition
The Plinian toponym Ossigitania is currently seen as an ambiguous area, vaguely defined by written sources and by its apparent epigraphic confirmation, which places it in the Upper Guadalquivir. The location and delimitation of this territory and its theoretical capital, Ossigi Latonium, has generated a lengthy historiographical debate that has led to a consensus on locating it, not without reluctance, in the current area of ​​Cerro Alcalá (Jimena/Torres, Jaén). This work collects and analyses the epigraphic and textual information, assesses the archaeological data and establishes a starting point for the implementation of an archaeological methodology through which to propose new approaches to the historical knowledge of Ossigitania.
Neomaterialisms: sources of change for archaeology
One of the most significant contemporary intellectual debates concerns the rise of new materialisms and realisms in philosophy, sociology and the natural sciences. Across multiple disciplines, scholars have reasserted the role of material objects in the production of worlds and societies, while challenging hegemonic views that conceive matter as inert and passive, subordinate to the actions and intentions of an autonomous subject. Authors such as Latour, DeLanda, Meillassoux and Barad advance non- anthropocentric approaches that foreground material assemblages, the vitality of matter and contingency in the constitution of more-than-human societies. To date, the impact of the neo-materialist debate in archaeology has been limited in both scope and depth. Early engagements have been grouped under the label of ‘symmetrical archaeology’; however, the ontological and epistemological implications of these approaches extend beyond both this current and archaeology itself. The primary aim of this article is to outline the main terms of the debate and identify its key intellectual sources, in order to inform current and future archaeological discussion. What is at stake also concerns neighbouring disciplines, particularly art history, with which archaeology shares a range of challenges. Finally, the article considers the initial impact of neo-materialist and neo-realist approaches on archaeological research and cautions against the risk of reducing them to purely theoretical speculation lacking clear methodological application.
Martín Almagro-Gorbea. El monumento orientalizante de Pozo Moro (Albacete). Alacant: Publicacions Universitat d’Alacant (Studia Hispano-Phoenicia 12); Albacete: Instituto de Estudios Albacetenses “Don Juan Manuel” (Serie VI – Varios, 31), 2025, 722 páginas. ISBN 978-84-9717-903-4 (Universitat d’Alacant). ISBN 978-84-10056-36-7 (IEA). ISBN 978-84-10056-37-4 (IEA, Libro digital, https://iealbacetenses.dipualba.es/viewer.vm?id=0000100280)
Francisco Javier Jover Maestre y Gabriel García Atiénzar, Gabriel (eds.). Fundamentos arqueológicos del Bronce Valenciano. Alicante: Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Arqueología y Patrimonio Histórico (INAPH); Publicacions Universitat d’Alacant. (Petracos; 16), 2024, 573 páginas, 185 figs., color. ISBN 978-84-1302-280-2
Bugella Altamirano, Matilde. La arqueología en Córdoba durante el siglo XX. Las instituciones responsables de la protección del patrimonio arqueológico. Editorial Universidad de Sevilla/Consejería de Cultura y Deporte de la Junta de Andalucía (Colección Spal Monografías de Arqueología, LVI). Sevilla. 2024, 384 páginas. ISBN 978-84-9959-501-6 / 978-84-3751-8
Los celtíberos y la guerra. Jornadas científicas en homenaje a Francisco Burillo Mozota. Daroca – Aranda del Moncayo, 8 -9 de mayo de 2026
Román Rodríguez Calleja. El poblamiento del Bronce Final al Alto Imperio romano en la región de los Torozos (valle medio del Duero): un estudio desde la Arqueología del Paisaje y el análisis estadístico multivariante. Studia Arqueológica nº 104. Universidad de Valladolid. 2024, 404 páginas. ISBN: 978-84-1320-286-0
Graham Harman y Christopher Witmore. Objetos intempestivos: Filosofía y arqueología orientada a objetos. Materia Oscura. Segovia, 2024, 287 páginas. ISBN: 978-84-127034-4-3
Michael Blech (Viernau, Turingia, 15 de septiembre de 1940 - 2 de febrero de 2026)
Early stages of Palaeolithic rock art in southern Iberia. Malaga area
We present a record of caves in southern Iberia in which Palaeolithic graphic manifestations are made up of a variety of signs, among which fingerings and punctuations, traces, pigment projections on geological formations, or coloured stains applied to the surface or edges of the speleothems predominate. They have been included in the concept of ‘aniconic horizon’. The uranium series dating in Cueva de Ardales has confirmed the remarkable antiquity of some of these manifestations. We present the caves in Malaga that have evidence of these graphic representations. We provide data on the methodology of the archaeometric analyses carried out as part of the First Art Project and discuss and evaluate their chronological and cultural framework in relation to the Palaeolithic societies of the region.
The Levantine rock art paintings of Rincón de la Zorra, in Hoz de la Vieja (Teruel, Aragon)
This article presents the rock art paintings of the Rincón de la Zorra, recently discovered in the municipality of Hoz de la Vieja, province of Teruel (Spain), in the hydrographic basin of the Martín River. The shelter is to be added to those located in the Valley of the Martín River, whose middle section was declared a Cultural Park, and whose common nexus of delimitation responds to the location of numerous shelters with rock art. While the number of figures preserved on the decorated panel is modest, some are remarkably well-preserved, including a series of imposing human figures. These pachypodous or Centelles type anthropomorphs are believed to belong to the earliest phases of Levantine rock art. The site also contains pictographs of smaller size, including a female figure, other archers, and a zoomorph. The characteristics of this new enclave are directly related to the Levantine art of the Martín River, extending this rock art territory to the southwest through the Armillas River, a tributary responsible for the impressive geological formation of Hoz de la Vieja, which is visually controlled from this new Levantine shelter.
Iberia and its relations with the Mediterranean in later Prehistory (4th-2nd millennium BCE). A minimalist revision
In the last decades several authors have proposed the existence of relationships between the east Mediterranean with Iberia in the 4th, 3rd and 2nd Millennia BCE. This article revises the evidence, proposing that there is not definitive proof of contacts with the east Mediterranean until the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1500 BCE). The article identifies the fragility of the stylistic comparisons that have underpinned previous analysis and presents alternative explanations to similarities in the archaeological records of Iberia and the eastern Mediterranean. The article also explores the important of indirect types of exchange for the understanding of the relationship between the Iberia and the Mediterranean through a model that identifies the Iberian communities as the key agents with a significant interest in materials from Africa and parts of the central Mediterranean.
Chalcolithic fortification systems in the Lower Almanzora river basin: Almizaraque, Zájara, Campos and Puente de Santa Bárbara (Almería, Southeast Iberian Peninsula)
The settlements of Campos (1881) and Almizaraque (1905-06) in the Lower Almanzora and Los Millares (1892) in the Lower Andarax allowed Luis Siret to systematise the Chalcolithic of the South-East of the Iberian Peninsula. In the seventies and eighties of the 20th century, excavations were resumed in Campos (1976-77, 1985-86) by the University of La Laguna and in Almizaraque (1979-83) by Complutense and Valladolid University, which contributed to clarifying significant aspects about the excavations of Siret. However, due to the intensity of Siret's excavations in Almizaraque and the partial destruction of Campos, they made difficult to properly understand the fortification systems in both settlements, even generating doubts about the presence or not of fortification systems. During those years, the University of La Laguna's research was extended to two new fortified settlements in the Lower Almanzora, Zájara (1987, 1990), also excavated by Siret in 1904, and Puente de Santa Bárbara (1991). Based on the study of the Siret documentation in the National Archaeological Museum, partially unpublished, on Almizaraque and Zájara, the documentation published by Siret about his excavations in Campos and Almizaraque (1890 and 1908) and the most recent campaigns, a re-evaluation of the Chalcolithic fortification systems in the Lower Almanzora. Almizaraque and Campos must have had concentric enclosures, of which we know of two in Almizaraque and the innermost one with a double wall in Campos, while the smaller settlements, Zájara and Puente de Santa Bárbara, have perimeter walls, at least in the most accessible sectors. Regarding the actual dimensions of its two largest settlements, Almizaraque and Campos, they could have been between 6 and 12 hectares, dimensions comparable to Las Pilas and Los Millares, or even larger. In contrast, Zájara, with 1.88 hectares, and Puente de Santa Bárbara, with 1.50 hectares, had support functions: the former providing visual control of the mouth of the Almanzora River for Campos, and the latter monitoring the Almanzora River ford to access the Cerro Minado copper mine.
The Tholos of Peñarroyo I (Benalup-Casas Viejas, Cádiz). Absolute dating, architectural study and approach to its material evidence
This paper presents the results of the archaeological excavation carried out at the Peñarroyo Tholos I (Benalup-Casas Viejas, Cádiz), which belongs to the Celemín necropolis and is located in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. We analyze its architecture, the obtained radiocarbon dates, the anthropological study, and the recovered archaeological artifacts. Despite the partial looting of the tomb, which renders the obtained inferences incomplete and fragmentary, our research has represented a significant advancement in the study of megalithism in the far south of the Iberian Peninsula. This is an area with a large number of known dolmen tombs, many of which have either been looted at an undetermined historical time or whose results come from outdated excavations lacking modern methodology. The silver objects found are also of particular interest, as they confirm the presence of silver artifacts in western Andalusia at such early dates.
The Rippenvase from cist 2 of Los Torcales 6, Beas, Huelva. Chronological proposal for this class of vessels
During the earthworks control operations for the execution of the N-435 bypass, Trigueros-Beas (2015), the remains of five cist funerary structures were discovered in the archaeological sites known as Los Torcales 1 and 6. As part of the grave goods of the bone remains in cist 2, a vessel known as rippenvase, as designated by Schubart in his study of the grave goods from the Bronze Age of Southwestern Iberian Peninsula necropolises, appeared. Chronologically, he placed them in the Bronze Age II (1100/1000-800/700 B. C.). Subsequent research has pushed their dating back to the Middle Bronze Age, with a chronology between 2070/1930-1170/1050 B. C. However, through the analysis of a series of new pieces, we can narrow down their chronology to between 1875/1850-1500/1400 B. C., making them an indicator of the first half of the 2nd millennium B. C.
Tartessus: past, present and future of a historical construction
Tartessos is, undoubtedly, one of the most controversial topics in the History of the Iberian Peninsula. Its mention in classical sources and its subsequent identification with an archaeological culture have led to intense debate, which we can now update thanks to the latest developments in research. Thus, this work takes stock of the last two decades of scientific production (past), analysing the current state of research (present) and proposing a reflection (future) that will allow us to advance our knowledge.
Towards a Definition of the 'Iberoroman' Sequence of the Plaza de Armas de Sevilleja (Espeluy-Bailén): New Interpretative Proposals for an Exceptional Settlement of the Upper Guadalquivir (Jaén)
The Plaza de Armas de Sevilleja (Espeluy-Bailén) archaeological site is of exceptional significance within the scientific literature on recent prehistory, particularly in the context of the Bronze Age. Nevertheless, the material culture of the site indicates the existence of a broader chronological sequence, encompassing a phase that has been defined as 'Ibero-Roman'. This article will focus on the analysis of the latter period, in which this settlement, linked to the Roman city of Cantigi, played a decisive role in the territorial articulation of the Rumblar and Guadiel river valleys, the southern foothills of the eastern Sierra Morena and the upper-middle course of the Guadalquivir. To this end, an analysis has been conducted of the material and contexts excavated during the archaeological intervention conducted in 1985 by the Peñalosa Project, as well as the systematic surveys conducted recently.
Qui portat lanceam. Toward a Hermeneutics of the Spear in the Northeastern Hispanic Spear Stelae
The Roman polymath Marcus Terentius Varro is apparently credited with the view that the term lancea is not of Latin but of Hispanic origin. Based on evidence from toponymy and anthroponymy, this origin should be sought in the Lusitanian region, as research has established. This conclusion is now contrasted with corresponding archaeological monuments—the lance stelae of southern Aragon and Baetulo. These are considered the most significant decorated Iron Age, pre-Roman reliefs of the northern Pyrenean Peninsula. However, the present examination reveals them to be Roman tombstones of the imperial-era typical of a small hinterland region between Zaragoza, Lérida, and Teruel. The patrons are likely to have been newly emerging social groups, such as freedmen, in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD. The depiction of the lance served as a medium for self-representation, while simultaneously allowing them to express an allegiance to traditional values.
Cave art and open-air art in the Canarian-Amazigh settlement of Birbique (Agaete, Gran Canaria). Discussion and proposal regarding their chronology
This study provides a comprehensive reassessment of the troglodyte site of Birbique, located in the northwest of Gran Canaria, based on detailed documentation of the rock art and its archaeological context. Through specialized methodologies—including photogrammetry, morpho-typological analysis, and comparison with insular repertoires—three rock art stations have been identified, whose engravings reveal at least three distinct cultural horizons. This proposal is grounded in a diachronic approach that integrates contextual, chronological, and comparative data, contributing to a more accurate interpretation of the site's occupational sequence. The evidence suggests an initial indigenous occupation possibly emerging between the 7th and 8th centuries, followed by a reoccupation from the 10th to 11th centuries, and a later phase during the Hispano-Canarian period. Furthermore, the coexistence of domestic, funerary, storage, and symbolic spaces supports the interpretation of Birbique as a complex settlement. Overall, this case study contributes to refining the insular archaeological periodization and strengthening current interpretative frameworks.
J. Robles Moreno, J. Fenoll Cascales (2024): La escultura y arquitectura ibérica de El Cigarralejo. El paisaje monumental de una necrópolis contestana. Murcia, Monografías del Museo de Arte Ibérico de El Cigarralejo 7. ISBN: 978-84-7564-829-3
Ruiz-Gálvez Priego, M. (2024): Pensar el paisaje, imaginar el mundo. Fundamentos para la Arqueología del Paisaje. Madrid, La Ergástula. ISBN: 978-84-19726-12-4
J. Moratalla Jávega, T. Chapa Brunet, J. García Cardiel, G. Segura Herrero (2024): Esculturas ibéricas del área sacra de Las Agualejas (Monforte del Cid, Alicante). Alicante, Museo Arqueológico de Alicante. ISBN: 978-84-15327-12-7 (244 pp.)
Crónica científica del “Seminario NeoNet 2025: Conexiones en el sur de Europa durante el Neolítico”. Universidad de Alcalá (Alcalá de Henares, Madrid). 15 y 16 de mayo de 2025
Teresa Chapa Brunet: a trajectory of shared experiences
This article is the collective contribution of the three editors to the jubilee issue we organised in homage to Professor Teresa Chapa Brunet, Professor of Prehistory at the Complutense University of Madrid on the occasion of her retirement. In 2024 her formal link with the Faculty of Geography and History, where she graduated, obtained her doctorate and completed her academic career without interruption, came to an end. All three authors graduated and received their degrees and PhDs from the same Faculty and have maintained a personal relationship with Teresa as colleagues and students, first in the Department of Prehistory and then when we joined the staff of other academic institutions. We have shared excavations and research projects, published with her and participated in her educational initiatives at different levels. The triple testimony that we present, each from their own experience, seemed to us the most appropriate way to celebrate Teresa's intertwining of personal qualities and academic merits, a profile that makes her academic career so exceptional.