Abstract:In this paper we seek to analyse the wine domain with the aim at designing the knowledge representation structure that might be used by wine applications ontology-based. To do so, we have considered data from wine ontologies already on the market and have analysed the domain comparing it from a different perspective: the consumer’s. In order to do so, we have checked consumers’ most-frequent questions in blogs so that we could depict the wine map according to consumers’ needs. This analysis shows how many of the questions and interests raised about wine by the internet searcher do not have to do with wine tasting features only, but go far beyond traditional aspects that now relate to health, leisure and other activities. The wine tourist is one of these internet searchers who wonders about wine and about the broad conceptual world wine is part of. A new knowledge representation schema with customer and activities slots as part of the model is suggested as a way to represent the domain and be helpful to answer for the new world of interest wine-web surfers exhibit when they access the web.
Keywords:wine domain, ontological description, customer, wine tourism, web analysis.
How to cite: Zarco-Tejada, M. A. (2025). The customers’ inquiries to wine webs: relating users’ interests to wine ontological description..
Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a la Comunicación103 (2025): 305-322.https://dx.doi.org/10.5209/clac.87160
1.
Introduction: The Wine Event and A New Perspective from the
Customer
Analysing the customer has been the focus of attention of market
studies in the last few decades and since one of the most successful
current commercial activities is the one that concerns wine, where
producer-product-customer are part of the key elements that determine
such commercial activity, this new scenario of the wine event defines
important aspects in its domain and conforms its knowledge
representation structure. Considering wine from such a commercial event
perspective, bearing in mind the complexity and instability of the wine
domain, we discover that wine tourism has already established as a
highly developed market type where many people, business and interests
are involved and where most of the queries and search for information
made by customers occur on the internet via accessing wineries’ web
pages or renowned wine blogs, where information regarding winery
facilities and wine tasting experience programs are displayed and
commented on. This way, taking the wine domain within this commercial
perspective, the language of wine tourism has been the focus of research
during the last decades as lexicon and style have posed as salient
features of this specialised language type. Either considering the
language of tourism —of which enotourism is a part- as a specialised
language with lexical and morphosyntactic features distinct from
ordinary lan- guage, or as a broad term with sub-sectors, there are
scholars, among which Calvi (2000, 2001) and Mauri (2014) are found, who
sustain that the language of tourism, —and hence, that of enotourism— is
not a unitary one, but with different subgenres that depend on the
communicative mode and the type of recipient. Besides this
classification, which we subscribe, there are other criteria that
condition language use in our specific re- search field of wine tourism.
Firstly, the sender clearly determines language choices, as it is not
the same the information given by scientists, experts or scholars
compared to what influencers may comment. Second, we cannot forget the
commercial dimension wine in general and wine tourism in particular has.
As language varies according to the type of sender, language depends on
the purpose of the activity wine is part of, too: the message tries to
convince or persuade the customer for a specific decision. And third,
language —lexical choices, phrases, sentences— is determined by the
customer: age, culture, education are parameters that condition language
use. Having mentioned some of the elements to be considered when
analysing the language of wine, as mentioned by Meluzzi and Balsamo
(2021), there is a change in the linguistic strategies used derived by
the new channels of communication —social media— and by a new focus of
attention on the consumer. The information produced by cellars have to
adapt and consider customers’ needs and enquiries; such information
should fulfil consumers’ expectations because the customer plays a key
role. As stated by these authors ‘the first necessary step in the
development of an effective communication strategy is getting to know
the audience’ (2021: 8). Communication takes place through a specialised
discourse determined by the information shared by sender and recipient
and the purpose of communication. The linguistic strategy is determined
by several ways to get closer to the client, as sharing values or having
an empathic attitude with her/him are ways of drawing attention and thus
of obtaining response. This approach that considers multiple senders and
recipients (socio-discursive factor), genre and text types, cognitive,
grammatical or terminological factors as elements that determine the
specialised discourse has already been explained by Cabré (2009) as part
of the Communicative Theory of Terminology (CTT), where terms are
simultaneously studied as units of language, of cognition and of social
function, as well as by Guantiva et al. (2008) or Ciapuscio (2003).
Already Cabré (1997) suggested what she called horizontal and vertical
axes to describe specialised language variation. Within this
communicative frame the horizontal axe refers to theme and perspective
that classifies specialised languages into areas of knowledge, whereas
the vertical axe relates to contextual and extra-linguistic conditions
affecting text production determined by intention, specialised level,
language use and type of participants involved in the act of
communication. In this sense, and having in mind Hoffmann (1998)’s
discourse vertical variation, our study analyses wine language examples
as part of the specialised discourse and the informative discourse
classification in an attempt to bring together all kinds of
customers.
But as mentioned above, analysing the customer (recipient) with
linguistic aims has overlapped with studies having different research
purposes. In fact, identifying the customer’s needs has already been the
object of analysis of market intelligence for the last decades (Dahan
and Hauser, 1993; Griffin and Hauser, 2002). The easy and, so, massive
access for information on the Internet has revealed a new world of
potential buyers in those searching the web. People check the Internet
for information or advice in health, travel matters or automotive
purchases, as explained by Urban and Hauser (2004) study, where
customers’ needs searching for an automobile are identified by
‘listening in’ the dialogues created by customers when using the
Internet. A very detailed description of this new era of commerce
focused on the customer analysis is given by Walsh and Godfrey (2000),
who already stated e-tailers’ new strategy concentrating on the
identification of the unique wishes of each and every customer, taking
advantage of new technology. The customer is no longer classified in
categories, but gathering information about her/him from their declared
data or from their be- havioural data —the customer’s navigation through
sites— is the key to make up a detailed picture of the customer’s unique
preferences. As these authors state, personal information, purchasing
habits and click- streams are the three types of data collected by
e-tailers with one and main target in mind, that is to say, browsers are
potential customers.
1.1.The wine tourist
Thus, as it has been pointed out above, several spheres converge on
this topic: market studies, commerce analyses, tourism industry and
wine. So, since our initial proposal was to convey an analysis from the
consumer perspective, in order to contextualise our theme we start by
giving some general description of the wine tourist so that we can
identify later the different aspects the ontological representation
should cover. The starting point seems to be considering wine tourists
as a potential market and, thus, thinking of them as consumers. But such
a simplistic view could give us a too reduced picture of the whole wine
event, where other aspects participate actively in the description of
such an interesting and complex matter. As Charters and Ali-Knight
(2002: 318) affirm ‘Wine tourism is rarely a discrete activity, but will
probably be undertaken in conjunction with some or all of rural, eco-,
cultural or adventure tourism, and its participants are unlikely to
separate the various tourism forms’.
Several classifications have been made regarding wine tourists. Thus,
wineries refer to ‘casual tourists’ or ‘sophisticated drinker’ depending
on the tourist’s demands of experience and information; Mitchell, Hall
and McIntosh (2000) classified Italian wine tourists in four
classes:
‘the Professional’, who knows wines and the wine world; he can
judge a wine’s virtues and faults; he is interested in new
experiences.
‘The Impassioned Neophyte’, who likes wines, enjoys foods, the
countryside and generally travels with friends. Ready to learn but not
as a professional.
‘the Hanger-On’, wealthy and attracted to wines because that
knowledge is a mark of distinction.
‘the Drinker’, who visits wineries as an alternative to a bar and
also asks to buy in bulk.
Hall (1996) established three categories ‘wine lovers’, ‘wine
interested’ and ‘curious tourists’ and Charters and Ali-Knight (2002)
refer to four different types:
‘Wine lover’ with a subtype ‘Connoisseur’, who reads books about
wine, likes wine tourism and wants to buy wine at wineries.
‘Wine interested’, tourist interested in wine, with some
knowledge on it.
‘Wine novice’, declared as a curious tourist with limited
knowledge on wine.
‘Hanger-on’, tourist who visits wineries as part of the group
experience.
On the other hand, Bruwer et al. (2002) mention five types of
consumer behaviour: enjoyment oriented social wine drinkers,
fashion/image oriented wine drinkers, ritual oriented conspicuous wine
enthusiasts, purposeful inconspicuous premium wine drinkers and basic
wine drinkers.
These authors, in their effort to describe the wine tourist, have
attended to general data, such as origin, age, education or income of
the participants, as well as more specific aspects that categorise them,
such as wine knowledge or education, culture, values, motivation,
lifestyle or attitudes. In fact, these features depict the kind of
person that conforms as a wine tourist and much of their choices (buying
wine, making questions, enrolling in the wine touristic activity,
enrolling in the wine tasting activity, making other touristic
activities around, etc.) depend on the type of customer she/he is. The
tourist profile, in this specific case, and the ‘wine interested’
person’s enquiries in general are key elements to be considered when
formalising any wine domain.
2.
Wine Web Visitors: The Role of Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) Web
Pages
As it has been stated above, the customer in a broad sense is not
only an out of context client, but someone who surfs the web and
conforms to online requirements. There are many wine websites that
present general information about wine but that do not offer the
specific information needed. Chatbots are a very helpful tool aiming at
providing detailed information to the questions being posed. One of the
possible design procedures is to set an ontology as a basis from where
to retrieve information. In the ontology the basic terms and their
relationships are defined capturing, this way, the relevant domain
knowledge. As stated in Vegesna et al. (2018) on the E-commerce domain,
an ontology based chatbot is proposed to get the desired appropriate
answer to the user’s query, having as one of its advantages that the
chatbot has not pre-programmed responses. In this sense, devising an
ontology seems to be the first step on which further tools may rely on.
Another example is the LRI-Core (Breuker and Winkels 2003), a core
ontology aimed at the legal domain that has been used as top-ontology in
several projects, such as CLIME (Winkels et al. 1998), on which a
question-answering system was based.
In order to do that, the wine ontology will have to cover areas of
knowledge that exceed the traditional ones —wine description (eye, nose
and taste), wine production processes or storage— and face new wine-
related aspects that are part of the wine sphere and that depict wine,
not only as a consumable thing, but as part of a social event with a
precise role in it. In this context wine marketing and wine tourism
emerge as two of the most representative wine spheres under development,
subsets both of the e-business superset defined by Turban et al. (2000)
and Beynon-Davies et al. (2002). As subsets of e-business, the
interactivity with customers is considered as one of the most critical
factors for small and medium enterprises (SMEs)’ competitiveness
(Sparkes and Thomas 2001) and the internet conforms as the most
convenient channel to fulfil lots of information demanded by consumers.
The coming of Web 2.0 has changed the role of customers without a doubt.
They are no longer passive recipients of services but active
participants in the creation of models and innovation. We can see how
social media has become an integral part of customer service. By liking
posts, for example, the customer contact and social interaction takes
place, making it possible to interact with businesses. As a matter of
fact, online customers’ preferences —criticism and dissatisfaction
expressed by clients in online reviews— have already been considered by
Suau Jiménez (2019) in the do- main of e-tourism as a way to improve
hotel websites. In our case, the internet as a marketing tool, and wine
websites in particular, should cover consumer’s needs regarding
informational, transactional and relational aspects: the site should
present detailed and complete information on the products and should
provide for interactivity with consumers. Following Begalli et al.
(2009)’s analysis of e-marketing of Italian wines, who make a thorough
study of Italian wineries strategies and apply Rayport and Jaworski
(2001)’s 7Cs framework as a model for the interface design of a
web-based system, we focus on Begalli’s customer services aspect (7C
model Connection) and choice (7C model Content), which include, among
others, Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) pages for the former, and
presence of agro-tourism activities for the latter, as parameters a wine
web-based system must have. Our authors in their effort to make a sound
analysis of web marketing strategies implemented by Italian wineries,
specify in detail the different parameters of evaluation that could
influence web sites quality. Facts such as ‘products presentation’,
‘range of products’, ‘direct sale availability’ or ‘delivery time’ are
counted as critical elements in the design of a web-based system. But
not only, ‘presence of agro-tourism activities’ or ‘Frequently asked
questions (FAQ)’ are enumerated in the evaluation set. As it is stated
in their work, only 13.9% of existing web sites in Italy include
‘agro-tourism activities’, whereas none of the ten companies under
analysis showed a FAQ link in the browser. Their analysis shows how
wineries use web sites as a show case but they do not benefit from the
possible interaction with the consumer.
In this sense, we intend to analyse a collection of FAQ pages of a
set of wine websites as an input that could help us design the new (if
so) wine-landscape of interests the wine event shows. Following the
push- pull motivation framework used to study touristic travelling too
(Chen and Chen, 2015), according to which tourists are pushed by their
motivational strengths and pulled by the destination’s attractions, the
motivation- al strength (push) may be estimated from the set of
enquiries customers type in the wine browser that later
conforms the FAQ web page. In there, questions, interests, doubts or
thoughts, etc. are exposed. Whether applying a push-pull analysis or
adopting a psychological approach, the needs and claims of wine
customers should be fulfilled by wine websites that should not follow
just a show case marketing strategy for wine selling but that should
include aspects of a wider and more complex scene. Bruwer et al. (2018)
highlights how, even though most of wineries’ visitors belong to the
Wine Buyers cluster, hedonic motivations linked to pairing wine and food
experience, feeling dining at the cellar or learning about wine are
significant motives for visiting cel- lars. In the same line Bressolles
and Durrieu (2010) and Bruwer and Wood (2005) affirm buying not to be
the primary motivation for visiting a wine web site but comparing prices
and getting information. As a response to those expectations winery
websites should provide with related information regarding all aspects
of the wine scenery so that they could act as pull motivations to
attract wine web visitors. In fact, an analysis of visitors’ demands
related to push motivations may help us design the conceptual field of
wine.
As life changes, so do people’s interests. In this sense, customers
may have wine-related questions never asked before, as it is the case of
‘Is this wine vegetarian/vegan? Is your wine vegan friendly? Are your
wines gluten free? Is this wine organic? What is the nutritional value
of white wines?’ Our proposal is that wine ontologies should include
these new aspects to give a thorough description of wine where
consumers’ interests could be satisfied.
Thus, within the aim of analysing the wine domain and the challenge
to devise a wine knowledge rep- resentation model, in our study we will
try to give answer to the following research questions:
What is the role of the consumer in the wine ontological
description?
What do FAQ pages show? Are they just a window to consumers’
interests or do they have to do with mer- chandising
strategies?
Should the concept of wine be represented according to
traditional intrinsic properties or, if the concept of wine is
considered as a living experience in a wider sense, should the
ontological model include other slots?
3.
Ontologies of Specific Domains within the frame of Applied
Linguistics
In our study the important role of the customer has already been
pointed out when considering her/his needs and interests through the
questions made within FAQ web pages in wine websites. The concept of
wine gets ever more complex and, thus, its formalisation a challenge. In
their efforts to face a classification and explanation of entities,
ontology building has already shown to be a very active and dynamic
field. Starting from Gruber (1993)’s definition of an ontology as a
specification of a conceptualisation and as a description of concepts
and relations that exist for an individual or a community of
individuals, we share the general assumption that an ontology provides a
means to represent knowledge. In general terms knowledge representation
tries to solve problems by representing formally and structurally
domains and relations within domains. In other words, it is a way to
classify things, to manage unstructured information. Within the sphere
of Applied Linguistics, ontologies are used to describe the underlying
structure of language and its relation to the world. In this sense, the
linguistic analysis plays an important part when defining the terms used
and designing a formal model. The linguistic analysis helps to detect
language patterns, concepts, terms and structures, precise of specific
domains and the formal model conforms as the basis for carrying out
automated tasks in the domain. Ontologies, along with semantic networks
and frame systems, are one way of representing knowledge, but unlike
frame systems, these are oriented to supply with information to other
applications that need specific knowledge on that particular domain. It
is a type of knowledge used by knowledge-based systems. Even if the
three models are used in natural language processing to represent
knowledge about the world, semantic frames (Fillmore and Baker, 2010)
are more specific while ontologies tend to be more abstract.
In our case, the wine ontology is a structured representation of the
wine domain. And, yet, what in theory seems to be a very obvious and
simple thing to do, it is quite the opposite. As stated by Mommers
(2010) regarding ontologies in the legal domain, an inherent problem for
ontologies is that the domain is in continuous change, and mainly, the
language used to describe it since one of the features of wine language
is the creative use of linguistic expressions. Following Mommers
(2010)’s reflections on the problems found in building up legal
representation frameworks, questions such as the need for a low degree
of change in the domain or the combination of wine concepts and
real-world concepts representing the domain are part of the difficulties
any researcher aiming at devising a knowledge representation schema
faces with.
Besides language change, this author underlines how ontologies may
vary not only depending on the object of analysis itself, but depending
on the philosophical approach underlying the model. According to him,
legal ontologies may be classified in three different sets regarding
their relation to reality. As he mentions, there are three main
approaches underlying the ontological framework design of the legal
domain:
Semantically oriented approaches, that show the relation between
language and reality. WordNet is an example of it, where concepts are
represented by a set of synsets, and these are linked to each other by a
fixed set of relations (Miller, 1995; Fellbaum, 1998). WordNet is a
framework of relations among concepts.
Epistemically oriented approaches, that show the relation between
knowledge and reality. Valente’s (1995) ‘functional ontology’ is an
example of it. And,
Ontologically oriented approaches, that make claims about
existence. Van Kralingen (1995) ‘frame based ontology’ is an early
ontologically oriented theory, where entities represented by frames with
slots filled with characteristics for each occurrence of the entity
constitute his organising proposal.
On the other hand, Steve (1998) distinguishes three types:
Domain ontologies, that represent specialized knowledge of a
specific domain or subdomain.
Generic ontologies, that represent general concepts, and
Meta-ontologies, that represent conceptualizations underlying
knowledge representation formalisms.
And Guarino (1998) includes a fourth one:
Task-ontologies, created for a specific task or
activity.
Having these classifications in mind and considering wine domain in a
wider sense than the traditional efforts shown in wine ontologies, our
model follows the principles of an ontologically-oriented model, where
concepts are represented by classes, properties and relations and where
the limits of the wine domain itself are questioned. But, as stated
above, our model is supposed to underlie a wine application resource, so
it belongs to Guarino’s task-oriented ontology type within the domain
ontology specific class.
As stated by Mommers on the legal domain, ontologies may have several
applications ranging from translation of documents —codifying the
meaning of terms may help in manual translation activities—, auto- mated
classification and summarizing —where ontologies can help in
classification techniques— or information retrieval —still the most
widely application of ontologies. Codifying the meaning of concepts and
their relations can help for finding information —and question
answering— where detailed and deep knowledge representations are
required for any automatic system in order to produce an automatic
answer. The linguistic formalisation is part of the work involved in the
production of the current natural language processing applications
mostly requested by companies, that is to say, those ones dealing with
sentiment analysis, text classification, machine translation systems or
automated answering systems like smart assistants and chatbots
(Torrijos-Caruda 2020). In this process, when building an ontology, the
first step is learning from text, that is to say, the collection of
terms and concepts and establishing relations among them. These terms
and concepts and their relations determine the knowledge representation
model an ontology is. In Davis et al. (1993: 17)’s own words ‘it is a
surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself’. As stated by these
authors, two of the questions are: How close the surrogate is to the
real thing? and, what attributes of the original it makes explicit and
which it omits? Besides, formalizing the wine domain may help to
represent the knowledge that is hidden among concepts. Having a look at
some of the available wine ontologies on the market, we have realised
the domain focuses on wine features mainly, but some aspects have not
been represented. The customer has been left out.
Since our knowledge representation formalism is supposed to be at the
back of the wine resource, the role of the customer plays an important
part in the configuration of the wine domain. From this perspective, we
have analysed the most frequently asked questions users make and have
checked if all questions were conceptually represented in traditional
wine ontologies already on the market.
4.
Analysing the Sherry Domain and the FAQ Web Pages as Methodological
Procedure: Findings and Discussion
As mentioned above, we have analysed a set of Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQ) users post to some of the most representative wine blogs
regarding their doubts and concerns about wine. For our selection of
sources and since our focus of analysis is the customers’ interests
rather than the expert answers, we did not want to be too exclusive and
so have to reduce the type of blogs to the ones offered by expert people
only. Thus, besides those blogs found in the Consejo Regulador de los
Vinos de Jerez y Manzanilla official website1 as
“Sherry guest bloggers”, we have selected others too, where customers’
questions about Sherry were addressed, and have named it as Corpus A2. Besides this, a corpus B3 (named General corpus and formed by
wine blogger websites on wine in general) have been created in order to
widen up the field of research and consider inquires posted regarding
any type of wine. In both corpora any question has been considered,
questioning either on wine production, composition, storage, pairing,
shipping, etc. Even if the most salient and repeated questions bloggers
receive could have been identified with a quick reading and, thus, it
could have been possible to get a general idea of wine-related
interests, we have decided to follow a corpus linguistics procedure
using AntConc [3.5.8], —a corpus search and concordancing program—, and
have compared both corpora analysing word frequency, keywords and
collocation patterns: corpus A (Sherry Corpus) with 10460 tokens —the
corpus of questions related to Sherry offered in FAQs pages of Sherry
blogs— and corpus B (General Corpus) with 8064 tokens —the corpus of
FAQs posted to general wine websites—. With this approach we aim at
finding a more precise and accurate identification of terms and a better
detection of the differences so that these results could guide ontology
builders to incorporate aspects not considered by wine experts but that
are highly demanded by wine lovers.
Table 1 shows an extract of
the absolute frequency of the most used words of our corpus A, the
Sherry corpus:
Table 1. Most frequent words in the Sherry corpus
Rank
Abs. Freq
Word
1
466
Sherry
3
391
Jerez
4
298
Amontillado
17
214
Flor
20
158
Dry
27
131
Nose
32
119
Sweet
35
112
Aging
48
85
Appearance
55
75
Light
54
74
Fresh
58
71
Amber
As the word tokens indicate, the most repeated words in the corpus
are related to the classification of the type of Sherry (‘amontillado’),
the making process (‘flor’, ‘aging’) or their taste description (‘dry’,
‘fresh’, ‘light’).
On the other hand, a similar analysis of our Corpus B- FAQ General
corpus-, gives us some predictable results and some interesting ones,
too. Table 2 shows the high
frequency of wh- words used, something that can be guessed since the
part of the blogs analysed belongs to the FAQ section. Having a look at
the ques- tions being posted, users want to know about what certain wine
specific terms mean, how to make, store, decant wine, when to do it, and
where (see the following extracts as samples):
Do you add flavorings to wine to achieve different aromas (i.e.
chocolate, cherry)?
Do you add sugar to make sweet wines?
How do you make white wine with red grapes?
Is wine dryness or sweetness due to grape variety?
How do you make rose wine?
What is the alcohol content?
Should I decant?
How long can wine be cellared?
Table 2. Most frequent words in FAQ pages from corpus B, the General
corpus
Rank
Abs. Freq
Word
4
179
What
9
97
Do
10
94
How
12
71
Can
13
63
Does
17
43
Why
18
42
If
19
40
Should
22
34
When
31
21
Mean
68
14
Where
On the other hand, in Table 3
our analysis shows a set of some other most frequent words that are
worth un- derlying. After tagging both corpora with POS tags using
TagAnt [1.2.0] as a tool, we have searched for syntactic categories and
have found the high use of adjectives such as ‘best’, ‘good’, ‘clean’,
adverbs like ‘most’, ‘more’, ‘much’ or nouns such as ‘temperature’,
‘glass’, ‘home’ in them. These words and their frequency might indicate
how wine web searchers are asking for evaluative statements on wine
drinking or wine making procedures:
Table 3. Most frequent adjs., advs. and nouns in FAQ pages from the General
corpus
Rank
Abs. Freq
Word
26
23
Best
27
23
Good
51
16
Temperature
54
15
Clean
57
15
Most
65
14
Glass
73
13
More
74
13
Much
105
9
Home
In fact, a closer look at these words, after analysing their
collocates, shows the users’ interests. Table 4 shows the frequency of collocates of
que interrogative pronoun ‘what’ as searched term:
Table 4. Frequency of collocates of ‘what’ as searched term
Rank
Abs. Freq
Freq(L)
Freq(R)
STAT
Collocate
11
22
5
17
5.55430
Mean
12
21
5
16
3.27959
Do
14
19
4
15
5.21155
Best
17
13
1
12
5.01770
Between
18
11
0
11
4.94662
Difference
20
9
1
8
5.48719
Way
21
11
3
8
3.62469
Should
22
11
3
8
3.55430
If
The following examples are an extract of the questions users
typed:
What does it mean when…?
What grape variety grow…?
What temperature…?
What’s the best glass?
What’s the best way to keep…?
What’s the best wine?
What’s the best process…?
What wine should I serve?
What’s the difference between…?
So far the questions underlined above match the common classic
expectations. Typically, wine websites tried to inform web browsers on
the wine brands and their tasting description. We could say the focus of
attention was placed on wine traditional interests, as FAQs regarded the
types of wine, grapes, vineyards, wine making process, storage and
purchasing. But as mentioned before, the wine world is in constant
change. The enquiries surrounding it include other aspects that might be
worth considering when devising a general map of wine description.
Besides the already settled wine-lovers’ concern on wine and pairing,
—as shown on most cellars’ websites by the information and recipes
displayed trying to guide the consumer’s best choice—, a closer look at
the FAQs gives an already steady line of interests, —not present in
every wine website and much more common in those ones from Australia—,
that include health, lifestyle or tourism elements as part of the
enquiries made by web visitors. The new set of enquiries fit within a
new customer’s type who is no longer concerned with wine as a beverage,
as an exclusive social class identity or as a national symbol only, but
who defines himself/herself as environmentally involved, health defender
and landscape searcher. People have new interests so they make other
questions: ‘Is this wine vegetarian? Are your wines gluten free? or What
is the nutritional value of white wines?’ We suggest the new wine domain
should include these new aspects to give a thorough description of wine
where consumers’ interests are represented. In the following
classification we show the different areas customers’ enquiries found in
our research may fit in:
Wine description or wine production:
What grape variety made this wine?
What is a Hybrid wine? What is Merlot wine? What is Malbec? What
grape is Pinot blanc? What grape is Pinot Noir?
Do you add flavorings to wine to achieve different aromas (i.e.
chocolate, cherry)?
Do you add sugar to make sweet wines?
How do you make white wine with red grapes?
Is wine dryness or sweetness due to grape variety?
How do you make rose wine?
Do Italian varieties mean you buy the plants from Italy?
What exactly is wine fermentation?
How do sparkling wines get carbonated?
What does the term ‘solera’ refer to in Sherry and
winemaking?
What is the alcohol content?
Who’s the producer?
Which wines are unsweetened, unfortified and have no herbs or
spices added?
Wine, Health and lifestyle:
Is this wine vegetarian/vegan?
Are your wines vegan friendly?
Are your wines gluten free?
Is this wine organic?
What is the nutritional value of white wines?
Why does wine give me headaches?
Are sulfites dangerous?
Wine serving:
Should I decant it?
What’s the best temperature?
Should white wine be chilled when serving?
Why do you smell and swirl wine before you take a sip?
Storage:
How long can wine be cellared?
How long does white wine last?
Should wine bottles be regularly rotated?
How long can you keep an unopened wine in a kitchen
refrigerator?
Do I have to store my wine in a temperature-controlled
cellar?
What is the correct cellar temperature, and do whites and reds
need to be different?
How long can you keep an unopened wine in a kitchen
refrigerator?
Can high humidity damage wine?
Wine pairing:
Can you suggest some easy wine pairings that would upgrade our
weeknight meals?
What wine go with bacon?
Why is red wine often paired with red meat?
What about wine with cheese?
Wine, events and lifestyle:
What wine should I serve at a party/business lunch?
For a dinner party, is it better to serve one bottle of lots of
wines, or lots of bottles of a few wines?
How do you pick what to drink?
What I am eating, or if I am not eating, what environment I am
drinking in – inside vs. outside?
Who I am drinking with – business vs. friends?
Wine purchasing/merchandising:
Which vintage should I buy?
Which wine should I buy?
I have this one old bottle; how much is it worth?
Can I buy a membership as a gift?
Wine evaluation:
How to select a good wine glass?
What’s the best wine?
Wine and tourism
What wineries should I visit?
15 steps to a successful winery visit
These interests that act as a push motivation for the wine web surfer
may likely become a pull motivation if included as part of the
information cellars display. In this line it is surprising to note the
limited number of Sherry winery websites with FAQ pages. After analysing
the most representative wineries of Sherry, we may confirm that most of
the wineries’ websites include the following topics:
Wine description
Winery description
Winery visit
Winery visit and tasting
Link to online purchasing
Wine making process is mainly described in most Sherry wineries as it
is important the historical description of the cellar itself related to
the history of the village or area, reinforced with a wide and varied
photo- graphic material. In the same way, many wineries include pairing
notes as well as touristic activities, such as vineyard visits, visiting
museums, flamenco or equestrian exhibition. It is worth mentioning too
very few references to the commitment for the sustainable management of
natural resources and protection of the environment, with an overt
reference to the commitment to the mitigation of climate change, use of
renewable energies and the protection of biodiversity. A look on these
new interests is shown in the following analysis of wineries4 within the Marco de Jerez (Sherry
wine region):
Bodegas Altanza (galería del Jerez): it shows winery and wines
information, a section for the museum and a link for visiting and
tasting.
Bodegas Álvaro Domecq: it includes information on wine tourism
and pairing.
Bodegas Arfe: it offers information on the winery, pairing and
awards. It also includes a blog section.
Bodegas Argüeso: it offers information on the history, the
wineries and it includes a link to touristic routes in the
city.
Bodegas Barbadillo: it includes tasting courses, winery tour
guide and wine tasting and pairing experiences. It openly declares its
commitment to quality, innovation, ethical and environmentally friendly
management. Surprisingly, it classifies ‘organics’ as one of its types
of wines.
Bodegas Barrero: it offers information on the products, the
winery and history. It has a link to visiting the winery and a blog with
curiosities.
Bodegas Caballero: it includes information on wines and
environment or CO2 emissions. It also includes information on food
safety and wine tourism.
Bodega La Callejuela: it offers information defined as the
essence of wine: the soil and grapevine.
Bodegas La Cigarrera: it shows information on the winery,
history, wines and a link to events that include tasting and pairing
activities and current training courses in the area.
Bodega Conde Peraleda (Grupo Salto al Cielo): it includes
sections regarding agriculture, cattle, agritourism and
agri-feed.
Bodega Delgado Zuleta: it includes visiting activities with
vineyard tour, tasting and pairing experiences and a touristic visit to
the village plus an equestrian show.
Bodega Díez Mérito: it includes vineyard visits and participation
in a flamenco or equestrian exhibition. – Bodegas Dios Baco: it includes
a vineyard visit, besides the winery, as part of the wine touristic
activities. – Bodega grupo Estévez: besides information related to the
museum visits, it includes food safety information and environment
certification.
Bodegas Faustino González: it shows a description of the vineyard
and a link to visiting and tasting events. – Bodegas Fundador: it
includes references to wine tourism and tasting.
Bodegas Garvey: it displays pairing recipes.
Bodega González Byass: it includes information on wine tourism
besides information on lifestyle with the magazine ‘Vida, Vid, Vino’. It
includes information on innovation technologies, sustainability and
environment and it includes a wide section that explains the values that
define them.
Bodegas Gutiérrez Colosía: it includes winery visits and social
network links.
Bodegas Herederos Nicolás Martín: it includes visiting the
vineyard, drinking and eating experiences and flamenco shows.
Bodegas Hidalgo La Gitana: it includes vineyard morning and
sunset tours and guided winery tour with tasting and eating
experiences.
Bodega Los Infantes Orleans Borbón: it includes training courses
besides tasting and pairing events.
Bodegas Luis Pérez: it includes detailed information relating
soil profiles to wine flavour. It shows a wide description of vineyards
and tour and tasting events.
Bodegas Lustau: it includes tour and tasting events. Besides, it
offers a podcast series dedicated to sherry to inform and teach about
topics related to sherry and a CSWC degree (Certified Sherry Wine
Specialist degree).
Bodegas El Maestro Sierra: it displays a link entitled ‘the
culture of Jerez’ where Sherry is related to culture, history,
literature and identity.
Bodegas Osborne: it includes sustainability, biodiversity and
environment information, besides wine tour- ism and social
networks.
Bodegas Tradición: it includes a guided tour with tasting and
visit to a Spanish painting collection.
Bodega William and Humbert: it displays a link on innovation with
a commitment on sustainable and eco- logical viticulture. It shows the
ecological vineyard.
Table 5 shows a
classification of the topics found:
Table 5. Topics found in wineries from the Sherry wine area
Tasting
A detailed description of wines.
Cellar
Description of cellars and their history.
Merchandising
Link to online buying cellars’ products.
Pairing
Tips on how to pair wines and food.
Lifestyle and social dimension
Information about sustainable winemaking production within an
ecological context.
Leisure
Visits to museums and exhibitions.
Visits to cellars and vineyards with wine tasting
activities.
5.
A Proposal: Enlarging Frame Slots and Values for the Wine Domain
Following the concept of ontology as a structured knowledge
representation and subscribing Noy and McGuinness (2001) statement
according to which an ontology is useful for analysing domains and
making knowledge assumptions explicit, we propose to enlarge the number
of classes and properties on the Sherry wine domain with the new aspects
winery webpages exhibit. So far, most wine ontologies concentrated on
attributes related to colour, body, taste, sugar content —intrinsic
properties— or winery, year, name —extrinsic properties. In fact, the
object properties involved in traditional wine ontologies included
examples such as: ‘has_Drink’, ‘has_Food’, ‘has_Maker’,
‘has_Vintageyear’, ‘has_Winedescriptor’ (with ‘has_Body’, ‘has_Colour’,
‘has_Flavour’, ‘has_Sugar’ as sub properties) or ‘madeFromGrape’, among
others. But there is no mention to the consumer or to the activities
related to the wine event when considered from a much wider look. Even
if these are not properties, they play a central role implicated in the
push-pull motivations wine-centred. The wine domain should widen up as
to include the information that many potential customers may search for,
so that wine websites match the new type of wine consumer’s
expectations. Many of the questions made and the search done by web
surfers while surfing the net are related to the history of the
producers, the historical building, the location of the winery (if next
to the vineyard, to an important touristic area, other historical sites,
etc.), the grape variety produced in the vineyard and the activities
cellars offer —they want to buy wine, to taste, to learn about, to visit
the cellar and vineyard—:
Figure 1. Schema of the class ‘winery’
The Object properties ‘has_building’, ‘has_vineyard’, ‘is_located’
relate the class ‘winery’ to attributes such as ‘historical building’,
‘cathedral-like buildings’, ‘sand floors’, ‘dim light’, ‘high ceilings’,
‘white limestone soils’, ‘Marco de Jerez’, or ‘Moscatel grape type’.
But the internet user is not only interested in taste, price, grape
or location of a winery, but in leisure activities that could be found
while visiting the cellar. Figure
1 above shows how to relate these activities to the class winery.
Similarly, Figure 2 shows how the
consumer should be part of the domain too, linked to the classes of
‘wine’ and ‘activity’:
Figure 2. Schema of the class ‘consumer’ linked to the classes ‘wine’
and ‘activity’
Figure 3 shows in more detail
and with specification of the object properties an extract of the new
suggested classes within the domain:
Figure 3. Schema that shows the class ‘wine’ linked to the mentioned
classes with the object properties specified.
The schema shows how the class ‘maker’ not only relates to ‘wine’
through the object property makes/ has a maker, but to the classes
‘selling’, ‘buying’, ‘entertaining’, ‘tourism’, etc. through the class
‘activity’ that is linked to the class ‘maker’ through the object
property has_Activity/is_offered_by. The new class suggested,
‘consumer’, links to the general knowledge frame by two object
properties, does_activity/is_done and drinks/ is_drunk, that relates
‘consumer’ to the classes ‘activity’ and ‘wine’ respectively. Figure 3 shows how ‘selling’,
‘gifting’, ‘doing tourism’ are activities that belong to the wine domain
as these classes represent the possible offer a winery makes and a wine
consumer demands.
On the other hand, the ‘consumer’ class should be specified with
attributes that could depict a great variety of users as simple
‘clients’, ‘wine lovers’ or ‘wine experts’ to the more specific ones
such as ‘wine-culture concerned’, ‘tourist’, ‘environment concerned’ or
‘health concerned’, among others. A sample of it is shown in Figure 4 below:
Figure 4. Schema of the class ‘consumer’
We indicate below, apart from traditional properties related to
taste, colour, nose, aging, etc., the new set of object properties that
should be part of the wine knowledge representation:
Owl:topObjectProperty
has_Activity
has_Maker
has_PairingWith
has_WineProperty
has_WineAcidity
has_WineAftertaste
has_WineAppearance
has_WineNose
has_Colour
has_WineFinish
has_WinePalate
has_WinePersistance
has_WineSweetness
has_WineThroughTheMouth
hasWineAgeing
has_does_Activity
has_Identifies_as
is_HealthConcerned
is_EnvironmentConcerned
is_Tourist
is_WineCultureConcerned
is_Client
is_User
is_WineExpert
has_Drinking
is_Activity
is_Teaching
is_Buying
is_Entertaining
is_Tasting
is_Eating
is_Gifting
is_Selling
is_doing_Tourism
is_Learning
is_Visiting
is_Relaxing
is_Enjoying
is_Offered_At
is_made_at
is_property_of
is_paired_with
is_consumed_by
is_Served
is_done_by
is_located_In
is_made_from_Grape
is_made_into_Wine
makes_Wine
As Figure 5 shows below, there
are many different areas related to wine other than the traditional ones
and wine descriptions should involve most of these concepts since, as it
has been found, people surfing the net are much more concerned with
wine-related aspects that go far beyond traditional wine descriptor
features (taste, aroma, colour, cellar, age). Our proposal suggests to
incorporate at least two of them —consumer and activities— in order to
achieve and display a deeper picture of the word meaning and answer for
the new world of interests this complex word hides:
Figure 5. Schema for the new subdomains of any wine knowledge
representation
In the following schema —Figure
6— we give an attempt of a prototypical wine website that includes
the main subdomains traditionally wine-related and those ones new, which
only a few websites already include, but that, as previously mentioned,
identify better with the new type of customer that consults the
information the selected wine website offers.
Figure 6. Prototypical wine website schema
6. Conclusions and Further
Research
After having studied wine features through wine knowledge
representation structures already on the market and having analysed the
questions posed by web users and the information present at wine web
pages by magazine experts, bloggers and wineries, with a special
emphasis on Sherry and wineries that belong to the Sherry wine region,
we group our conclusions in two sets. Firstly, we will mention those
ones related to the results found on the internet concerning the
description of wine, and secondly, those ones that have to do with the
formalization and configuration of knowledge.
On the first hand, we confirm that most of the questions made by web
users deal with wine traditional concepts, that is to say, with wine
descriptors related to taste, colour, or pairing, price, production and
storage. Back to Bruwer et al. (2018), there are primary motivations
like taste or buy wine; pairing wines with specific foods or questions
related to concepts or terminology, like ‘what are the legs’ or ‘what
does tannins mean’. But on the other hand, many questions subscribe
Bruwer et al.’s secondary motivations: socializing, being entertained,
travelling, relaxation. Thus, consumers make questions related to
healthy drinking habits, to wine production in safe and environmentally
friendly conditions and to wine consuming linked to social and
recreational activities and to cultural identity. In fact, wineries are
increasingly including touristic visits in their web pages besides
tasting events, wine courses, wine certificates, vineyard visits and
touristic experiences in the area. Coming back to the first of our
research questions —what is the role of the consumer in the ontological
description?—, we suggest that, by interacting with companies and
expressing their needs, consumers act as building blocks in the
configuration of the wine ontological formalisation.
Going back to the second of our research questions, the FAQ pages
analysed in this work, mainly those ones of wineries of the Sherry wine
area and others from abroad, seem to be a good element of analysis since
they show not only the new consumers’ interests through the questions
submitted but the new merchandising strategies used by wineries in order
to gain new consumers who do not fit with traditional wine drinkers. FAQ
pages are a pull tool too. As one of the findings we count the contrast
observed among wineries from wine producers in Europe, with not so much
information in the FAQ pages and many wineries even with no FAQ page at
all, and those ones from Australia that dedicate a lot of space to
younger users’ inquiries. These wineries pay more attention to
sustainability, environment, health and leisure and their web pages
—among which FAQ pages are included— display wide information sites to
compete with traditional wineries and, so, open to a new promising
market. In line with Nowak and Newton (2008) on Millennial consumers,
other aspects such as fun and enjoyment of wine, wine country experience
and healthy habits should be part of the description of wine and thus
part of the wine web sites of wineries in order to attract them as
customers and transform them into wine lovers. As Atkins and Nowak
(2007) states in their analysis of women as wine consumers and the
factors they rely on in making their buying decisions, consumers may be
influenced by aspects that are not part of the core product, such as
labels, shelf tags, winery region or medals and awards. If making just
good products is not enough, the marketing orientation based on getting
closer to the consumer should include factors that fulfil their already
settled new interests. The wine drinking event has never been more but a
wine living experience.
And secondly, related to our third research question and as part of
the conclusions that could arise from this work, we have suggested the
need to incorporate such facts as part of the wine domain. Activities
and consumer are part of the wine knowledge representation being
categorized as extrinsic properties that nevertheless model the wine
domain together with colour, taste, nose or acidity —intrinsic
properties—. The object property ‘has_Activity’ links the class ‘winery’
to the multiple events the winery offers. In addition, the class
‘consumer’ links to the class ‘wine’ through the object property
‘has_drinking’ and links to the class ‘activity’ through the object
property ‘does_activity’. Besides and most significantly, the class
‘consumer’ may be linked to other classes that could formalise aspects
related to identity. With the object property ‘has_ Identifies_as’’ the
class ‘consumer’ is linked to the whole set of the consumer descriptor
attributes, representing now aspects related to the consumer’s identity:
‘health concerned’, ‘tourist’, ‘wine lover’ or just ‘client’, among
others. This idea of identity that has been barely suggested in this
paper and how to represent it in the model seem to be one of the most
interesting aspects for further research since wine and identity are two
related concepts mostly reflected by winery websites and a pull
motivation for capturing followers.
The work we have followed delves deeper into formalisation schemata
mainly, but during the analysing process of consumers’ interests,
besides the matters mentioned above, new lines of research that
complement the one presented here have opened up, that is to say, the
analysis of texts sent by customers either having a look at the
pragmatic strategies used when interacting with the company, in line
with Hyland (2005)’s interactional metadiscourse analysis and Martin and
White (2005) approaches, or focusing on the qualitative analysis of
consumers’s opinions regarding wine websites displays. These topics will
be addressed in further research.
Funding
This work was supported by the research projects ‘WeinApp: Sistema
multilingüe de información y recursos vitivinícolas’ [‘Wein-App: a
multilingual information and viticulture resource system’], funded by
the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, [grant number:
FFI2016-79785-R] and ‘ENO-ÁNDALUS: Cartografía de la identidad andaluza
a través de la lengua y el turismo enológicos’ [‘ENO-ÁNDALUS: Andalusian
identity cartography through language and wine tourism’, funded by the
Regional Government Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y
Universidad, Junta de Andalucía. [grant number: 381176-R].
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The “Consejo Regulador de los vinos de Jerez y
Manzanilla” is an organization that regulates the production and quality
of wines produced in the Jerez region of Spain. See the official website
at: www.sherry.wine/sherry-region/consejo-regulador.↩︎
A list of the Sherry bloggers’ web pages used is
provided in Appendix 1.↩︎
A list of the wine bloggers’ web pages used is provided
in Appendix 2.↩︎
