Before we address the research questions, some general observations involving publication
trends and geographical distribution emerged as we analyzed the studies. Over the past 15
years there has been a notable increase in terms of the number of research studies on CHL
education, especially in the most recent three years (see Figure 2). This indicates the
growing global mobility of Chinese people and their families (Yang, C. T., 2023).
Through an analysis of the participants recruited by these studies, we found that 47 out of the
53 studies recruited CHL learners spanning various age groups as participants, with 13
studies concentrating on children (under 12 years old), 6 studies on teenagers (12 to 18
years old), 19 studies on university students and adults (over 18 years old), and 9 studies
on mixed groups. The largest number of adult CHL learner studies is consistent with the
convenience of sample access to university students, who often participate in credit-bearing
Chinese language-related courses or study abroad programs in China (Tong & Tsung, 2023).
Compared to teenagers and college students, children were reported to have a greater level
of exposure to the Chinese language via family members or heritage language schools, making
them important in studies on CHL education (Tang & Zheng, 2023). However, as CHL
children grow up they encounter increasing pressure to assimilate into the dominant society
and increasingly busy schedules, which often diminish their motivation and effort related to
learning Chinese. However, there is a lack of research on language attrition during this
critical period, despite conflicting learning attitudes that may arise as a result of
parental and teacher expectations (Zhang & Slaughter-Defoe, 2009).
Consequently, researchers such as Wu and Leung (2022) and Zhang (2012) adopted a broader
sampling approach, including CHL learners ranging from children to teenagers in order to
better investigate the evolving challenges related to teaching and learning CHL. In
addition, these studies (e.g., Tian, 2017; Yang, C. T., 2023; Yang, Y., 2023) mostly
included the learners’ parents or educators to provide a more holistic perspective of the
relevant issues, such as academic struggles and ethnic identity formation. Five studies
focused on parents and educators in the context of CHL education, examining their roles in
maintaining CHL learners’ Chinese proficiency (e.g., Tang & Zheng, 2023; Wang &
Hamid, 2022). Two studies explored textbooks (CurdtChristiansen, 2008) and educational
institutions (Luo et al., 2019) related to teaching and learning CHL.
The studies were geographically diverse and covered a variety of regions with significant
Chinese diaspora populations, but they were predominantly focused on Anglophone countries
(n=43) such as the USA, Canada, the UK, Australia, and New Zealand (see Figure 3). The high
numbers of CHL studies in these countries may be attributed to their popularity as
destinations for education, study abroad, and international exchanges, driven by the global
spread of English and the internationalization of higher education. However, research based
in other regions with increasing Chinese diaspora populations, such as Europe and Asia,
especially those with societal languages other than English, remains limited (n=10). To
address this gap, future research should expand to include these regions in order to explore
the potential nature of CHL education in different cultural and linguistic contexts (Li
& Shen, 2023).
This section partially addresses RQ1 by detailing participant types
and settings, including the age groups of learners and the involvement
of parents and educators. It also responds to RQ2 by identifying
research topics such as CHL maintenance and ethnic identity formation.
The regional focus on Anglophone countries highlights gaps in research
from non-English-speaking regions.
Furthermore, these studies were conducted primarily in five different types of contexts,
including home (13 studies), classroom (12 studies), home and classroom (6 studies),
laboratory (13 studies), and individual (9 studies). Studies on CHL in naturalistic or
non-instructional contexts, typically within homes, focused on family language policies,
parental involvement, and informal language practices, highlighting the role of the domestic
environment in supporting or hindering heritage language maintenance. Classroom-based and
laboratory-based studies examined formal educational practices such as teaching methods,
curriculum design, and the integration of technology, providing insights into structured
educational settings where CHL learning took place. The distribution of these research
contexts potentially indicates that immigrant families constitute the dominant space where
heritage languages are maintained (Duff & Doherty, 2019), and highlights the importance
of relevant studies to address the practical challenges encountered by transnational
families.
In what follows, we address the first research question (RQ1) by examining the methodological
approaches employed in existing research on teaching and learning CHL. This analysis aims to
provide the insights and knowledge needed to inform researchers in their choice of research
methods and their role in shaping key perspectives or paradigms in CHL education. We also
respond to the second research question (RQ2) by identifying the key research topics that
have emerged from these studies, offering a comprehensive view of the field’s current
focus.
3.1. Methodological approaches in studies on CHL education
Our analysis identified that the studies on CHL teaching and learning could be divided into
cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental studies according to their methodological
approaches. Cross-sectional studies examined representative samples from various national
backgrounds, phases of education, or levels of acquisition (e.g., Jee et al., 2023).
Longitudinal studies compared a sample of CHL learners over time to trace their changes
(e.g., He, 2016). Experimental studies often included control groups, comparing a
representative sample of CHL learners with native speakers, dialect-heritage speakers
(e.g., Cantonese), or English-L1 baseline groups. Case studies presented deep analyses of
the profiles and experiences of CHL learners, families, or teachers (e.g., Liang &
Shin, 2021) and offered in-depth analyses of how identity, culture, and context influenced
CHL learning outcomes (Li & Shen, 2023).
Regarding methodological design, 26 out of the 53 studies employed quantitative methods, with
half being laboratory-based and designing tasks to investigate CHL acquisition (Figure 4). The other half included questionnaire
surveys and controlled observations conducted in homes, classrooms, or individual
settings, focusing on CHL acquisition (4 studies) and pedagogy (4 studies) to explore the
predictive factors of CHL learners’ language proficiency. The predominance of
quantitative, particularly laboratory-based, research may be attributed to researchers’
preference for the rigorous testing of hypotheses about language learning in controlled
settings, offering precise insights into cognitive processes specific to heritage language
learners.
In contrast, 23 studies utilized qualitative methods, with 13 focusing on issues related to
CHL maintenance and policy, 6 on identity topics, and 4 on pedagogy. Specifically, the
research approaches of these studies included narrative studies and ethnography, employing
data collection and analysis methods such as interviews with learners, parents, and
teachers, observations in both homes and classrooms settings, conversation analysis, and
the analysis of artifacts such as textbooks and other cultural materials used in CHL
educational contexts. In addition, four studies adopted mixed methods—two on CHL
maintenance and policy, and two on identity issues. The use of qualitative and mixed
methods in CHL research provided detailed insights into language maintenance practices,
identity formation, and effective teaching strategies by capturing contextual and
experiential data that complements the quantitative findings from other studies.
Figure 4. Methods used in the reviewed studies
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3.2. Research topics of studies on CHL education
Overall, the studies on CHL education could be categorized into four areas: (1) CHL
maintenance (19 studies), (2) CHL acquisition (15 studies), (3) CHL pedagogy (10 studies),
and (4) CHL learners’ ethnic identity (9 studies). The numbers of these types of CHL
education studies have increased steadily over recent years (see Figure 5), with a growing
emphasis on CHL maintenance and learners’ identity from a sociocultural perspective rather
than solely a cognitive one. The reviewed studies have reported and explained the
challenges encountered in CHL proficiency development by learners, parents, and educators,
as well as their coping strategies. Two contributing factors to learning outcomes were
also examined in the studies, including individual efforts and contextual input from
homes, classrooms, and wider communities. Researchers have also focused on how CHL
learners (re)construct their ethnic identity within multilingual and multicultural
societies.
Figure 5. Trends in the reviewed studies under each topic
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3.2.1. CHL maintenance (19 studies)
HL maintenance is understood as the continuing use of a minority language in the face of
challenges from a regionally or socially more powerful language (Mesthrie & Leap,
2000; Schalley & Eisenchlas, 2020). The studies on this topic consistently argued
that CHL maintenance is both a necessary ethnic asset for communication within families,
and a practical skill set for educational and career opportunities. The existing
literature has extensively explored the complex processes and outcomes of CHL
maintenance, highlighting a wide range of contributing factors such as the individual
investment of CHL learners (Li, G. et al., 2021), parental involvement (Chen et al.,
2023), parents’ and children’s ideologies related to CHL (Zhang & SlaughterDefoe,
2009), HL classroom practice (Wu & Leung, 2022), and practical benefits from the
broader sociocultural context (Mu, 2014), and so on. These factors collectively
contributed to the diverse outcomes observed in CHL learners’ multilingual
development.
To effectively navigate CHL maintenance, related stakeholders, including learners, parents,
and educators, have made significant efforts and enacted diverse practices that have
attracted scholarly attention. For example, Mu and Dooley (2015) and Zhang and
Slaughter-Defoe (2009) reported various forms of family support for CHL maintenance,
such as verbal encouragement and instruction. They noted that families tended to use
both informal instruction (e.g., error correction, parent-child talk, language practices
like watching Chinese TV and mealtime conversations) and formal instruction (e.g.,
assigning additional Chinese homework, using Chinese books from China, attending Chinese
schools, engaging home tutors). They also found that family encouragement and structured
learning activities played a crucial role in fostering a sense of pride and connection
among CHL learners.
In addition, Chen et al. (2021) reported that the effectiveness of home efforts was
mediated by family socioeconomic status (SES), whereby higher SES was generally
associated with reduced emphasis on Chinese reading and writing, decreased use of
Chinese at home, limited exposure to Chinese media, fewer Chinese friendships, and lower
proficiency in Chinese productive vocabulary. While lower generational status correlated
with lower HL proficiency, CHL learners’ Chinese literacy and receptive vocabulary
improved as they matured. However, although parents expected their children to maintain
the Chinese language, they primarily emphasized conversational skills over literacy
development, assuming that extensive exposure to Chinese might hinder their English
development, which they deemed crucial for college preparation. They also anticipated
that Chinese literacy would be further developed during college, as reported by Chen et
al. (2023).
Despite considerable efforts made by parents, CHL children’s
attitudes often varied, with peer pressure and the urge to conform
diminishing their motivation to learn Chinese and resulting in
resistance during childhood, although there was often a renewed
interest in adolescence. Liang and Shin (2021) found that CHL
learners preferred communicating in English within ethnic networks
despite their near-native conversational proficiency in Chinese,
resulting from pressure to assimilate into the dominant
society.
At the same time, children were often passively or agentively engaged in spontaneous
language brokering and code-switching in addition to formal and informal CHL learning,
shaping immigrant family discourse. He (2016) reported that CHL children often assisted
their parents with language, cultural, and technological challenges through language
brokering, which specifically referred to the translating and interpreting practice of
bilingual individuals for their family members or others who do not speak the dominant
language. Wu and Kim (2009) found that Chinese American adolescents’ perceptions of
brokering were influenced by their Chinese orientation and family expectations.
Code-switching, or using multiple languages in a single conversation, helps CHL speakers
to achieve interpersonal goals in multilingual contexts (He, 2013; Gong et al., 2021).
These practices highlight CHL speakers’ ability to blend linguistic resources, enhancing
their identity flexibility and cultural affiliation.
Beyond individual and interpersonal practices within the close personal relationships of
CHL learners (i.e., in family and school contexts), co-ethnic networks, especially
extended family support, also played crucial roles in CHL maintenance as well as being
mediated by media use. For example, Zhang (2012) reported that the language maintenance
of CHL learners from immigrant families was shaped by co-ethnic networking among their
family members in both China and their country of residence. Throughout the process,
polymedia and digital platforms (e.g., WeChat) significantly impacted CHL maintenance in
immigrant families by offering diverse resources and enabling interactions, although
challenges such as children’s preferences and parental supervision persisted, as
reported by Wang and Hamid (2022) and Zhao and Hewitt (2020). Wang and Hamid (2022)
examined the role of polymedia in enhancing CHL development and maintaining family
communication across significant geographical distances. Parents valued polymedia for
providing diverse CHL-related practices and fostering ethnic identity, but they were
concerned about excessive use and the challenges of navigating polymedia effectively,
especially caused by children’s preference for Englishmediated and
entertainment-oriented (rather than educational) media. At the same time, CHL children
agentively and creatively navigated communication using various semiotic resources such
as written Chinese, English, audio recordings, emojis, stickers, and digital artifacts,
as reported by Zhao and Hewitt (2020). This study highlighted that digital platforms
like WeChat facilitated meaningful language and literacy development through dynamic,
engaging interactions by extending CHL learner’s Chinese-speaking social worlds and
providing contextualized HL practice.
The 19 studies on CHL maintenance reveal a complex landscape, where the efforts of parents,
children, teachers, and contextual factors intertwine to shape CHL maintenance and
policy, impacting CHL proficiency and heritage cultural connection. Overall, relevant
research findings have demonstrated that significant challenges persist despite the
well-documented crucial role of family and language schools in preserving CHL. The
contribution of parents’ efforts and engagement in CHL maintenance are often hindered by
children’s attitudes and the dominant language environment. Interpersonal support from
co-ethnic networks and extended family is vital, but managing these influences alongside
assimilation pressures is a sophisticated process. Contextually, factors such as SES,
family language use, and media engagement critically shape CHL development. Although
digital platforms provide diverse resources, they also present challenges related to
children’s preferences and parental supervision. While a substantial portion of the
existing research has concentrated on examining individual and familial practices (e.g.,
home language use and parental involvement) in CHL maintenance, it has often failed to
explore how these practices interact with broader socio-political factors, such as
language policy, education policy, access to bilingual educational resources, and racial
social justice.
3.2.2. CHL acquisition (15 studies)
Among the 53 studies reviewed, 15 provide insights into the acquisition of CHL across
different dimensions, including vocabulary knowledge development, literacy abilities,
and grammar acquisition (e.g., Li, F. et al., 2021; Mai & Deng, 2019). Research in
these domains has highlighted the multifaceted nature of CHL acquisition, emphasizing
the importance of vocabulary knowledge, print-related activities, and early language
exposure in literacy and grammar development.
The predominant focus of these studies lay in investigating CHL learners’ vocabulary
acquisition, exploring various factors such as morphological awareness, oral language
exposure, learning strategies, and family language environment. For example, Luo et al.
(2018) found that morphological awareness contributed to Chinese vocabulary learning,
but no clear positive correlation was observed with phonological knowledge. Similarly,
the study by Zhang et al. (2022) indicated that in addition to morpheme recognition and
definitional knowledge, structural recognition also contributed to Chinese lexical
inference. As well as highlighting the morphological awareness in vocabulary learning,
studies have also examined the effect of language input (i.e., oral and print language)
on vocabulary acquisition among CHL learners. For instance, Zhang (2016) demonstrated
that oral language input at home and print exposure at CHL schools jointly enhanced
word-level abilities, such as vocabulary knowledge and lexical inferring ability. In
addition, Zhang and Koda (2018a) suggested that early exposure to spoken Chinese
enhanced the development of oral vocabulary knowledge and morphological awareness in CHL
learners, thereby strengthening the connection between oral and print vocabulary
knowledge. Previous studies have also recognized the influence of learning strategies
and home language environment on CHL vocabulary acquisition; family SES was found by Li.
G. et al. (2021) to be a significant factor affecting early HL vocabulary development.
In addition, the quality of home language environments has been shown to shape early
vocabulary development, although the duration of attending HL schools showed only a
limited association with lexical knowledge.
Research on CHL learners’ literacy development (e.g., reading comprehension) also
highlighted the crucial role of vocabulary knowledge, morphological awareness, and
print-related activities in reading comprehension, while oral language exposure was
found to contribute less directly to higher-level reading skills. For instance, Zhang
and Koda (2018b) investigated the role of vocabulary knowledge and morphological
awareness in reading comprehension, finding that vocabulary knowledge (i.e.,
word-meaning knowledge) directly and indirectly influenced reading comprehension. They
emphasized that morphological awareness was helpful in connecting vocabulary knowledge
to reading comprehension. Zhang (2016) explored how early language input impacted later
reading development, finding that while oral language exposure enhanced oral language
capacity, it did not directly improve higher-level reading abilities (e.g., lexical
inferring and reading comprehension). In contrast, print-related activities at home, for
example, practicing Chinese characters and reading Chinese storybooks, significantly
facilitated reading comprehension.
Zhang and Koda (2021a) further explored the relationship between oral language and reading
capabilities, finding significant correlations between oral language capacity,
morphological awareness, and print vocabulary, but no direct impact on higher-level
inferring and comprehension. In addition, Zhang and Koda (2011) found a positive
correlation between parents’ use of Chinese, their assistance with homework, and
children’s vocabulary breadth, with a particular relationship between independent
schoolwork reading, radical identification ability, and vocabulary breadth. Overall,
these findings underscored the intricate relationship between various linguistic
awareness, knowledge, and activities in shaping reading comprehension skills among CHL
learners, highlighting the need for a multifaceted approach to literacy development.
Despite these insights, the existing research reveals gaps in our understanding of how
various factors interact to affect reading comprehension. Future research should explore
how different types of print-related activities and parental engagement specifically
influence higher-level reading skills, while longitudinal studies could provide a deeper
understanding of how early literacy experiences shape long-term reading development.
Moreover, investigating the interplay between oral language exposure and print-based
strategies may reveal more effective approaches to fostering comprehensive literacy
skills in CHL learners.
Grammar represents a critical linguistic aspect in the acquisition of CHL, alongside
Chinese vocabulary and reading skills, and it has attracted considerable scholarly
interest. Research on CHL grammar has highlighted the importance of early language
exposure and the resilience of HL proficiency, with current theories such as the
Interface Hypothesis showing limitations in predicting bilingual grammar acquisition
(Jin et al., 2022). Mai and Deng (2019) quantitatively investigated the proficiency and
grammatical representation of the shì…de cleft structure in CHL
learners, revealing that while its temporal feature is relatively stable, lexical and
discourse aspects are more susceptible to variability. This suggests that early Chinese
exposure plays a key role in shaping proficiency, with minimal English transfer effects.
Jin and colleagues (2022) examined the comprehension and production of Mandarin relative
clauses, finding that despite initial production challenges, CHL learners could fully
acquire complex structures with sustained HL exposure. This study also indicated that
cross-linguistic influence from English did not lead to incomplete acquisition,
emphasizing the resilience of HL proficiency.
While current research has highlighted the resilience of HL proficiency and the importance
of early language exposure, it also underscores the limitations of existing theoretical
frameworks such as the Interface Hypothesis in fully explaining bilingual grammar
acquisition. Future research needs to focus on longitudinal studies to better understand
the dynamic processes of grammatical development in CHL learners. At the same time, more
nuanced investigations into the interaction between crosslinguistic influences and
grammatical structures are needed, along with studies exploring how different types of
language exposure and instructional methods impact long-term proficiency.
3.2.3. CHL pedagogy (10 studies)
Studies on effective CHL pedagogy encompass a range of practices, including classroom
teaching strategies, the use of textbooks, and curriculum development tailored to CHL
learners. These studies mainly examine teaching practices that foster literacy,
vocabulary acquisition, and reading comprehension while integrating modern educational
tools and technology. They also explore the role of textbooks and curriculum development
in shaping CHL educational experiences and outcomes. The relevant findings highlight the
importance of innovative teaching methods and curriculum enhancements in supporting CHL
learners’ language development and cultural understanding.
Previous studies (e.g., Lan, 2014; Zhou, 2022) have shown that effective classroom teaching
practices in CHL education are crucial for enhancing literacy, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension, as well as indicating the importance of integrating modern technology to
support language learning. Previous studies highlighted diverse strategies that
addressed these areas, demonstrating the impact of innovative pedagogical approaches on
student outcomes. Cun (2023) and Cheng et al. (2023) focused on enhancing literacy and
reading comprehension through innovative approaches. Cun (2023) highlighted the
effectiveness of arts-based writing activities, where teachers took on a supportive role
to boost student engagement and meaning-making, while Cheng et al. (2023) introduced the
Progressive Character Reading method, which improved character acquisition and reading
comprehension by providing frequent exposure to characters, thereby strengthening
students’ orthographic, phonological, and semantic knowledge.
Han and Chen (2010) further contributed to this area by demonstrating that repeated reading
strategies enhanced word recognition and a deeper understanding of language content. In
contrast, both Zhou (2022) and Jia (2009) examined more effective teaching approaches
beyond rote memorization. Zhou’s (2022) study on teaching Chinese classifiers found that
cognitive teaching methods were more successful than traditional rote memorization in
facilitating understanding of complex linguistic structures, and Jia (2009) compared
student-centered interactive learning with teacher-centered memorization, highlighting
the benefits of interactive methods in promoting cultural transmission and literacy
development. In addition, Lan (2014) demonstrated that technology, specifically
immersive virtual environments, could improve CHL learners’ oral performance and
attitudes towards Mandarin, underscoring the growing importance of integrating modern
technology into educational practices to foster engagement and to enhance language
learning outcomes.
At the same time, teachers were being confronted with the sociolinguistic challenges of CHL
maintenance posed by the public emphasis on Mandarin over other dialects, as Wu and
Leung (2022) notably pointed out in their study on Hoisan-heritage Chinese Americans.
They also reported that CHL teachers used translanguaging pedagogy to allow students to
share their diverse linguistic knowledge and ameliorate the risks of a Mandarin-only
approach, fostering critical language awareness and encouraging competence in various
Chinese languages. This study emphasized the need for CHL education to consider
different Chinese languages, not just Mandarin.
While these studies have consistently illustrated the effectiveness of diverse teaching
strategies and technological integration in advancing CHL education, future research
should explore how these strategies can be tailored to diverse learning contexts and
individual needs, as well as the long-term impact of these pedagogical strategies on
language proficiency and cultural competence. Further studies should also investigate
the interplay between technology and traditional teaching methods to optimize their
combined effects on particular CHL acquisition.
Other studies on CHL pedagogy explored issues such as the use of textbooks and curriculum
development. Curdt-Christiansen (2008) examined the textbooks used in CHL classrooms,
revealing that teachers employ discourse devices and historical contexts, which
constituted literacy education, to cultivate cultural identity and values among CHL
children. This study demonstrated how these educational texts, alongside other
sociocultural resources, can play a role in shaping students’ moral identities and
cultural capital, and also highlights how textbooks can contribute to students’
interpretation of social events and their ability to navigate their social worlds.
The exploration of curriculum development in CHL education has revealed crucial insights
into the roles of various stakeholders and structural challenges within language
programs, including parental involvement (Li, 2005), institutional tracking (Tian,
2017), and program resources (Luo et al., 2018). Li (2005) examined the role of parents
in CHL schools, revealing that while parental support is beneficial, an over-reliance on
parents can lead to issues such as low teaching quality and inadequately prepared
instructors. This study emphasizes the need to diversify resources by fostering
connections with Chinese international students, scholars, and faculty to enhance the
overall quality of these programs. Tian (2017) analyzed the impact of tracking systems
in an Ivy League Chinese language program, indicating that despite their cultural and
linguistic advantages, CHL learners were placed in lower proficiency tracks compared to
non-heritage learners. This analysis highlights how institutional tracking and cultural
processes can contribute to the achievement gap between heritage and non-heritage
learners, stressing the importance of reconsidering structural and cultural factors in
improving CHL learners’ language proficiency. Luo et al. (2018) conducted a national
survey of college-level Chinese language programs in the USA, providing a comprehensive
overview of CHL education. Their survey, which included responses from 246 institutions,
revealed a broad spectrum of program structures, teaching materials, and pedagogical
challenges. The study identified key issues such as the need for updated teaching
resources and professional development for instructors, emphasizing the need for
systemic improvements to address these challenges and better support CHL learners.
Studies on CHL pedagogy highlight progress in literacy, vocabulary acquisition, and reading
comprehension through innovative teaching practices and curriculum enhancements. While
modern strategies and technology integration demonstrate potential in improving
education effectiveness and quality, there is still a need to tailor these approaches to
diverse learning contexts and individual needs. The role of textbooks and curriculum
development in fostering cultural identity underscores the necessity for ongoing
refinement. Future research should focus on how pedagogical strategies impact long-term
language proficiency and cultural competence, adapt practices to varying educational
settings, and evaluate the interplay between technology and traditional methods. At the
same time, addressing structural challenges and resource needs in CHL programs will be
essential for developing more effective and inclusive educational practices.
3.2.4. CHL learners’ ethnic identity (9 studies)
Nine of the 53 identified empirical studies focused on CHL learners’ ethnic identity,
defined as an individual’s understanding of their membership in a non-state-dominating
group and the significance they attach to this belonging (Yang Y., 2023). The study of
CHL learners’ ethnic identity is crucial for understanding their cultural adaptation
within multilingual and multicultural societies. It can shed light on the complex
entanglement between language, culture, and identity formation, supporting Ruzaa’s
(2000, p. 168) assertion that “languages are among the most powerful symbols of ethnic
identity.”
It is commonly assumed that ability and use of a heritage language are key factors related
to ethnic identity construction (Noro, 2009). Because of CHL learners’ diverse
backgrounds, the ways they view themselves in relation to their languages and heritage
communities vary considerably, with some readily adopting a dual linguistic and cultural
identity and others feeling more reluctant to do so. Hence, the heterogeneity in CHL
learners’ identities and the associated social, cultural, and historical ramifications
have received increasing attention from scholars. These authors generally argue that it
is essential to comprehend how young people express their racial and ethnic identities,
language use, literacy, and cultural traditions in both conventional and evolving ways,
and also to avoid the assumption of unidirectional correspondences between race,
ethnicity, language, and cultural ways of being.
Researchers have reported that CHL learners’ ethnic identity may be shaped by essentialist
discourses of Chineseness and their own agency (e.g., Comanaru & Noels, 2009; Zhou
& Liu, 2023). These essentialist discourses, which are based on the assumption that
all members of a particular identity category shared fixed attributes that define their
identity (Bucholtz & Hall, 2004), can either constrain or enhance CHL learners’
ethnic identity, and they often impose rigid definitions and stereotypes about ethnic
groups, which can impact how learners perceive and express their own ethnic identity in
relation to their heritage language learning. For instance, Zhou and Liu (2023) found
that CHL learners were often disempowered by the model minority stereotype imposed by
their parents and the dominant society, but their bilingual skills, which facilitated
their workplace experiences, provided a space for them to gain confidence in their
bilingual and hybrid identities. Similarly, Paciocco (2018) observed that the
exclusionist discourse in Italy led CHL children with limited Italian literacy to adopt
a diasporic stance as a coping strategy. In terms of the tensions between Chinese ethnic
identity and the dominant society where learners reside, Wu et al. (2014) further noted
that the mismatch between the Chinese dialect spoken at home and the standardized
Mandarin used as the institutional norm in language classrooms posed challenges for CHL
learners’ language learning investment and ethnic identity.
While being socially impacted by essentialist discourses, CHL learners’ agency and
strategies to (re)position themselves in learning Chinese also significantly influence
their ethnic identity. For example, Comanaru and Noels (2009) and Yang, Y. (2023) found
that agentive CHL learners who perceived their Chinese heritage as integral to their
self-concept, rather than strongly preferring the dominant language Mandarin, exhibited
greater motivation, engagement, and enjoyment in learning Chinese, which in turn
reinforced their Chinese ethnic identity. In contrast, limited agency among CHL learners
could negatively impact their identity development. For example, Yang, C. T. (2023)
reported that CHL learners who were strongly connected with English perceived Mandarin
as a secondary language rather than a heritage language, and this lack of agency
resulted in rejection and resistance to learning Mandarin due to their identity
connections to their country of residence (i.e., American identity).
In addition, Tong and Tsung (2023) highlighted that CHL learners with higher agency who
employed proactive strategies, such as intense engagement with Chinese language and
culture, strong motivation to overcome learning challenges, and reflective integration
of Chinese language development with their whole personal growth, were able to foster a
nuanced and reinforced ethnic identity. Conversely, those who embraced the advantages of
their foreigner identity when visiting China, adopting an outsider stance and engaging
only superficially with Chinese language and culture, failed to actively explore their
heritage language identities, leading to minimal development of their Chinese ethnic
identity (Tong & Tsung, 2023). In this regard, the ethnic identity dynamics of CHL
learners involve navigating essentialist discourses, with outcomes ranging from feeling
disempowered by stereotypes to reclaiming and transforming their identities through
strategic repositioning, gaining confidence, and actively participating in heritage
language learning.
Existing research underscores that the interplay between essentialist discourses and
individual agency has emerged as a critical aspect shaping these identities, and
highlights the significance of CHL learners’ ethnic identity in their cultural
adaptation and language learning. Essentialist views of Chineseness could both constrain
and empower learners, depending on how they navigate these discourses. The contrast
between learners who actively engage with their heritage language and those who adopt an
outsider perspective highlights the pivotal role of agency in identity formation.
However, an over-reliance on essentialist frameworks risks oversimplifying the
complexities of identity, potentially neglecting other sociocultural factors—for
example, duration of residence in the adopted country, family socioeconomic status,
education experience, and local sociopolitical context—that may act to shape identity.
Future research should aim to move beyond these binaries and extend the focus to
intersectionalities between identity and other factors—for instance, media use in family
and school—and embrace the full diversity of experience among CHL learners.